Neoadjuvant vinorelbine/epirubicin (VE) versus standard adriamycin/cyclophosphamide (AC) in operable breast cancer: analysis of response and tolerability in a randomised phase III trial (TOPIC 2)

BACKGROUND

Vinorelbine is active and well tolerated against advanced breast cancer but there are no published efficacy studies in early breast cancer. We have therefore carried out a randomised phase III neoadjuvant trial in operable breast cancer.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Patients with > or =3 cm operable breast carcinoma were randomised to receive either vinorelbine 25 mg/m(2) on days 1 and 8 and epirubicin 60 mg/m(2) on day 1, 3 weekly for six cycles (VE) or doxorubicin 60 mg/m(2) and cyclophosphamide 600 mg/m(2) i.v. on day 1, 3 weekly for six cycles (AC), prior to standard local therapy, and adjuvant endocrine therapy as appropriate.

RESULTS

A total of 451 patients were randomised. Results for AC and VE, respectively, were: overall clinical response 73% and 74%, complete clinical remission 20% and 24%, pathological complete remission 12% and 12%, mastectomy rate 52% and 55%. None of these differences were significant. Dose reduction was required in 8% for AC and 20% for VE (P <0.001) (GSCF support not used). Significantly more grade 3/4 toxicity for nausea, vomiting and alopecia (despite scalp cooling) was seen for AC compared with VE but significantly less grade 3/4 thrombophlebitis and neuropathy.

CONCLUSIONS

Neoadjuvant VE is as effective as AC in early breast cancer and was better tolerated except for thrombophlebitis and neuropathy.

Fast recruiting clinical trials--a utopian dream or logistical nightmare?

Randomised clinical trials that exceed anticipated recruitment rates will by definition have the necessary precision to answer the research question within the expected time, thus ensuring the timely release of data that will inform future clinical practice. In addition, the national or international momentum generated brings with it a collective sense of achievement. Such trials, however, may also identify logistical and scientific problems that researchers should be aware of and for which provision needs to be made. The logistical problems relate to the rapid identification of the extra resources required to allow continued excellence in day-to-day management and monitoring of trial governance (both in participating centres and in coordinating trials units). The scientific/clinical problems include managing issues such as unexpected toxicities and suboptimal compliance, and the lack of time available in a rapidly recruiting trial to address them. A related issue concerns the lack of time available to initiate substudies (e.g. biological substudies), the relevance of which may only become apparent as the trial progresses. Many of these challenges were highlighted by recent experience with the Cancer Research UK Taxotere as Adjuvant Chemotherapy trial.

High dose chemotherapy and autologous stem cell transplantation as adjuvant therapy for primary breast cancer patients with four or more lymph nodes involved: long-term results of an international randomised trial

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to assess whether a short course of anthracycline containing chemotherapy followed by high dose therapy with autologous stem-cell support improves disease-free and overall survival as compared with conventional, anthracycline containing chemotherapy, in patients with primary breast cancer and four or more histologically involved lymph nodes.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Two hundred and eighty one patients entered into a randomised clinical trial were allocated to receive standard, conventional treatment (5-fluorouracil, epirubicin and cyclophosphamide-FEC for six cycles) or FEC for three cycles followed by high dose therapy consisting of cyclophosphamide, thiotepa and carboplatin and stem cell rescue (HDT). To be eligible, patients had to be free of overt metastatic disease and be < or =60 years of age. Analyses were according to intention to treat.

RESULTS

At a median follow up of 68 months, 118 patients have experienced a relapse or death from breast cancer (62 in the FEC followed by HDT arm and 56 in the conventional FEC arm) and a total of 100 patients have died (54 in the FEC followed by HDT arm and 46 in the conventional FEC arm). No significant difference was observed in relapse-free survival [hazard ratio 1.06, 95% CI 0.74-1.52, p = 0.76] or overall survival [hazard ratio 1.18, 95% CI 0.80-1.75, p = 0.40]. Five patients died from treatment related causes, three as a consequence of HDT and two in the conventional FEC arm.

CONCLUSIONS

At the present time, no benefit has been observed from replacing three cycles of conventional chemotherapy with the HDT regimen described here. Patients should continue to receive conventional chemotherapy as adjuvant therapy for breast cancer.

A novel continuous infusional 5-fluorouracil-based chemotherapy regimen compared with conventional chemotherapy in theneo-adjuvant treatment of early breast cancer: 5 year results of the TOPIC trial

BACKGROUND

To compare the efficacy of continuous infusional 5-fluorouracil (5-FU)-based chemotherapy against conventional bolus chemotherapy in the preoperative treatment of patients with large operable early breast cancer.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Four hundred and twenty-six women with histologically proven 3 cm invasive early breast cancer were randomised to receive pre-operative infusional 5-FU 200 mg/m(2) by daily 24 h continuous infusion via a Hickman line for 18 weeks with epirubicin 60 mg/m(2) intravenous (i.v.) bolus on day 1 and cisplatin 60 mg/m(2) i.v. bolus on day 1, both repeating 3-weekly (infusional ECisF), or conventional bolus doxorubicin 60 mg/m(2) i.v. on day 1 and cyclophosphamide 600 mg/m(2) i.v. on day 1, both repeating 3-weekly (AC), both schedules for six courses. Patients subsequently had local therapy (surgery or radiotherapy or both) and tamoxifen 20 mg orally daily as appropriate.

RESULTS

The 5 year results for AC and infusional ECisF, respectively, were as follows: overall response, 75% and 77%; complete clinical remission, 31% and 34%; pathological complete remission (pathCR), 16% for both; and pathCR with residual ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS), 25% and 24%. Mastectomy rates were 37% and 34%, respectively. Five-year overall survival was 74% for AC and 82% for infusional ECisF (hazard ratio 0.76, 95% confidence interval 0.51-1.13; P = 0.18). Both treatments were well tolerated. Grade III/IV lethargy, vomiting, alopecia and plantar-palmar erythema were significantly greater for infusional ECisF; grade III/IV leucopenia was significantly greater for AC.

CONCLUSIONS

Preoperative continuous infusional 5-FU-based chemotherapy is no more active than conventional AC for early breast cancer; with a median 5 year follow-up, the infusion-based schedule shows a non-significant trend towards improved survival.

Aromatase inhibitors as adjuvant therapies in patients with breast cancer

There is increasing evidence that endocrine therapy has an important role in patients with oestrogen receptor positive breast cancer. Several large meta-analyses have reinforced the value of both ovarian ablation and tamoxifen in improving survival. Over the past decade, aromatase inhibitors have become the treatment of choice for second-line therapy of metastatic breast cancer, and the third generation inhibitors have now an established reputation for good patient tolerability. Early studies indicated that aminoglutethimide/hydrocortisone could benefit postmenopausal patients with primary breast cancer, and in 2001, the ATAC study showed that the third generation aromatase inhibitor, anastrozole, seemed superior to tamoxifen in that anastrozole-treated patients had a longer disease-free survival. Other studies will report on the relative merits of the steroidal inhibitor exemestane as well as non-steroidal letrozole. The exact duration and sequencing of treatment, together with the long-term effects on bone are at present, unknown.

Health visiting at the crossroads: which way to the 21st century?

This article presents a response from a group of lecturers at Florence Nightingale School of Nursing and Midwifery, King's College London and one service user to the perception of a crisis of confidence within health visiting. Changes in registration procedures and shifts in policy have led health visiting to question its place within primary care and the model of preparation for health visiting practice. The group argues that this debate is based on a misunderstanding of the changing health care environment and that health visiting can find a place within the primary care team. Key to this is the continued adherence to a basic nursing training. The authors suggest an incremental model of health visitor training to provide the fullest scope to implement the new health agenda.

Recombinant human antibody single chain variable fragments reactive with Candida albicans surface antigens

A combinatorial phage display library expressing human immunoglobulin heavy and light chain variable regions was used to identify phage clones capable of binding to the surface of Candida albicans blastoconidia. Single chain antibody variable fragments (scFv) derived from three clones detected C. albicans antigens by indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and Western blotting. The antigens detected were conserved among different strains of C. albicans and several other Candida species. Two scFv clones detected antigens specifically expressed by C. albicans blastoconidia; the third detected antigens in both blastoconidia and filamentous forms of C. albicans. The antigens containing the epitopes recognized by all three scFv could be extracted from blastoconidia by dithiothreitol, suggesting attachment to the cell wall via sulfhydryl bonds. Epitope detection by the scFv was sensitive to treatment of C. albicans blastoconidia with sodium periodate, but not proteinase K, indicating the cognate epitopes were composed of carbohydrate. Antigenic determinants for each of the three scFv were detected by immunohistochemical staining of skin sections from a model of cutaneous candidiasis, demonstrating expression in vivo. Through selection for the ability to bind intact organisms, the phage display system provides a means to rapidly identify monoclonal binding ligands to Candida surface antigens. Being entirely human, mature antibodies generated from the scFv have potential utility in the treatment of candidiasis.

Team work and collaboration: the position of district nursing 1948-1974

Much has been written regarding the challenges facing district nursing in light of the constant change and development of the NHS. This paper follows the chronological development of district nursing up to the reorganization of the NHS in 1974. The paper commences with a brief outline of the origins of district nursing as a charitable activity before the inception of the NHS and moves on to consider the relationship between district nurses and general practitioners. A review of policy and legislation identifies that district nurses, in the early days of the NHS, were working for the GP, no longer an autonomous practitioner of a charitable organization. Other challenges experienced by district nurses included being employed by the Local Health Authority, a separate organization to the NHS. By exploring the clinical practice of district nurses, alongside the management and organization of district nursing it is possible to critically discuss the challenges facing district nurses in the current health care climate of teamwork and collaboration.

Palliative care in the community: the challenge for district nurses

Palliative care is expanding out of the hospice, and out of the narrow confines of its association with cancer. It should be a part of all care. District nurses are ideally placed to implement and coordinate palliative care in the community, making use of the talents of many other agencies and professionals. However, because of a lack of communication between these agencies, there is confusion about their roles, and many patients may not be receiving optimal care. This article argues that by promoting interagency and interprofessional communication and cooperation, district nurses can strengthen their role at the heart of palliative care provision in the community.

Cellular radiosensitivity and complication risk after curative radiotherapy

PURPOSE

To test for an association between in vitro fibroblast radiosensitivity and complication risk in a case-control study of breast cancer patients treated under standard conditions in a clinical trial of radiotherapy dose fractionation.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A cohort of patients participating in a randomised clinical trial of radiotherapy dose fractionation was selected on the basis of treatment-induced changes in the breast several years later. Thirty-nine cases with marked normal tissue changes were matched on several variables with 65 controls with no changes attributable to radiotherapy. Dermal fibroblast strains were established from duplicate skin biopsies, and clonogenic cell survival assays performed in triplicate after both high ( approximately 1.6 Gy/min) and low ( approximately 1 cGy/min) dose-rate irradiation. Laboratory studies were blind to patient identity, treatment outcome and radiotherapy schedule.

RESULTS

Analysis of 1128 clonogenic survival curves confirmed significant inter-patient variation in fibroblast radiosensitivity as measured by clonogenic survival. However, no association between fibroblast radiosensitivity and the development of late radiotherapy normal tissue effects was detected.

CONCLUSIONS

Inter-individual variation in cellular radiosensitivity may not be the main determinant of complication risk in patients undergoing radiotherapy for breast cancer. Other biological and technical factors may be more important in explaining the marked inter-patient differences in normal tissue damage evident several years after curative radiotherapy.

New clinical guidelines for patients with stroke

An estimated 100000 people and their families are affected by a cerebral vascular accident (CVA) every year (Office of Population Census and Surveys, 1993). The recently published national clinical guidelines for stroke patients (Royal College of Physicians (RCP), 2000) provide a framework for providing high quality care from the initial diagnosis through to rehabilitation and long-term care. The message evident throughout the guidelines is clear, namely, that effective care depends on good multidisciplinary teamwork. It is suggested in the core principles that ‘all members of the healthcare team should work with the patient and family using an agreed therapeutic approach’. The guidelines also highlight that, after the acute phase, specialist services provided in the hospital or community, yield the same results if care is well coordinated.

Influence of psychological response on survival in breast cancer: a population-based cohort study

BACKGROUND

The psychological response to breast cancer, such as a fighting spirit or an attitude of helplessness and hopelessness toward the disease, has been suggested as a prognostic factor with an influence on survival. We have investigated the effect of psychological response on disease outcome in a large cohort of women with early-stage breast cancer.

METHODS

578 women with early-stage breast cancer were enrolled in a prospective survival study. Psychological response was measured by the mental adjustment to cancer (MAC) scale, the Courtauld emotional control (CEC) scale, and the hospital anxiety and depression (HAD) scale 4-12 weeks and 12 months after diagnosis. The women were followed up for at least 5 years. Cox's proportional-hazards regression was used to obtain the hazard ratios for the measures of psychological response, with adjustment for known clinical factors associated with survival.

FINDINGS

At 5 years, 395 women were alive and without relapse, 50 were alive with relapse, and 133 had died. There was a significantly increased risk of death from all causes by 5 years in women with a high score on the HAD scale category of depression (hazard ratio 3.59 [95% CI 1.39-9.24]). There was a significantly increased risk of relapse or death at 5 years in women with high scores on the helplessness and hopelessness category of the MAC scale compared with those with a low score in this category (1.55 [1.07-2.25]). There were no significant results found for the category of "fighting spirit".

INTERPRETATION

For 5-year event-free survival a high helplessness/hopelessness score has a moderate but detrimental effect. A high score for depression is linked to a significantly reduced chance of survival; however, this result is based on a small number of patients and should be interpreted with caution.

Outcome of primary-breast-cancer patients with micrometastases: a long-term follow-up study

BACKGROUND

Bone-marrow micrometastases have been found in patients with primary breast cancer. We report long-term follow-up of women with primary breast cancer, diagnosed between 1981 and 1986, who had multiple aspirates taken at the time of initial surgery.

METHODS

350 women with primary breast cancer were examined immunocytochemically with antibody to epithelial membrane antigen. We investigated associations with various prognostic factors as well as the effect of micrometastases on relapse-free survival and overall survival.

FINDINGS

At median follow-up of 12.5 years, 151 patients had metastatic disease and 136 patients had died from breast cancer. 10-year relapse-free and overall survival were 43.9% (95% CI 33.4-54.7) and 44.9% (34.2-55.9) in patients with micrometastases, and 62.7% (56.5-68.6) and 65.7% (59.4-71.5) in patients without micrometastases at presentation (p<0.001). For relapse-free survival and overall survival, allowing for tumour size, lymph-node status, and vascular invasion, the effect of micrometastases decreased and was no longer significant, with a hazard ratio of 1.09 (0.74-1.61) for relapse-free survival and 1.21 (0.84-1.75) for overall survival.

INTERPRETATION

The presence of bone-marrow micrometastases in patients with primary breast cancer is associated with a shorter relapse-free survival and overall survival, but is not an independent prognostic factor. This immunocytochemical technique may be of value in patients for whom pathological tumour size and lymph-node status are unavailable (ie, patients receiving primary medical treatment).

Epirubicin plus tamoxifen versus tamoxifen alone in node-positive postmenopausal patients with breast cancer: A randomized trial of the International Collaborative Cancer Group

PURPOSE

To assess whether the addition of epirubicin (EPI) therapy to prolonged treatment with tamoxifen (TAM) improves relapse-free and overall survival in postmenopausal women with node-positive primary breast cancer.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Six hundred four patients entered onto a randomized clinical trial were allocated to receive TAM 20 mg/d for 4 years or TAM 20 mg/d for 4 years plus EPI 50 mg/m(2) intravenously on days 1 and 8 every 4 weeks for six cycles. Analysis was performed according to allocated treatment, with all randomized patients included (intention to treat), irrespective of eligibility status.

RESULTS

After a median follow-up period of 5.7 years, an improvement in relapse-free survival (RFS) was observed for the TAM and EPI-treated patients, compared with those who received TAM alone. The unadjusted hazard ratio was 0.72 (95% confidence interval, 0.54 to 0.96), with a corresponding reduction in the odds of recurrence of 27.9% (SD, 12. 3), which was statistically significant (P =.023). Adjustment for prognostic and/or predictive factors did not materially affect the hazard ratio. No difference was observed in terms of overall survival (reduction in odds of death, 11.9% [SD, 16.3]; P =.46). Combined chemohormonal treatment was associated with a higher incidence of acute side effects but without a clear increase in long-term cardiotoxicity. Twelve nonbreast second malignancies, including five hematologic malignancies (two of which were cases of acute myelogenous leukemia), were observed.

CONCLUSION

The data show that combined chemohormonal treatment reduces the risk of relapse in postmenopausal patients with node-positive breast cancer. No evidence was found, however, for an improvement in overall survival. The size of benefit observed for both outcomes was consistent with that reported in the Early Breast Cancer Trialists' Collaborative Group overview. The trial presented here, however, provides the first report of an improvement in RFS associated with the provision of a single cytotoxic drug in addition to prolonged TAM.

Pitfalls in placebo-controlled trials in palliative care: dexamethasone for the palliation of malignant bowel obstruction

To determine the effect of dexamethasone when treating malignant bowel obstruction, 35 patients were randomized to receive intravenous dexamethasone or a placebo, crossing over to the alternate treatment arm if there had been no resolution of obstruction by day 5. This was done in two consecutive studies. Patients were stratified according to whether or not they had received specific anticancer therapy within 28 days of study. In trial 1, 15 out of 22 patients 'responded' (resolution of obstruction by day 5; 10 on dexamethasone, five on placebo). Eleven out of 15 patients were 'on treatment'. In trial 2, six out of 13 responded (three on dexamethasone, three on placebo); three out of six were 'on treatment'. When both studies are combined, 60% (21/35) patients responded (13 on dexamethasone, eight on placebo). Poor patient accrual terminated both studies. Numbers are too small to allow a combination of studies or formal statistical analysis. We are unable to make any conclusion as to the effectiveness of dexamethasone in the palliation of malignant bowel disease.

Heterozygosity for mutations in the ataxia telangiectasia gene is not a major cause of radiotherapy complications in breast cancer patients

Of patients being treated by radiotherapy for cancer, a small proportion develop marked long-term radiation damage. It is believed that this is due, at least in part, to intrinsic individual differences in radiosensitivity, but the underlying mechanism is unknown. Individuals affected by the recessive disease ataxia telangiectasia (AT) exhibit extreme sensitivity to ionizing radiation. Cells from such individuals are also radiosensitive in in vitro assays, and cells from AT heterozygotes are reported to show in vitro radiosensitivity at an intermediate level between homozygotes and control subjects. In order to examine the possibility that a defect in the ATM gene may account for a proportion of radiotherapy complications, 41 breast cancer patients developing marked changes in breast appearance after radiotherapy and 39 control subjects who showed no clinically detectable reaction after radiotherapy were screened for mutations in the ATM gene. One out of 41 cases showing adverse reactions was heterozygous for a mutation (insertion A at NT 898) that is predicted to generate a truncated protein of 251 amino acids. No truncating mutations were detected in the control subjects. On the basis of this result, the estimated percentage (95% confidence interval) of AT heterozygous patients in radiosensitive cases was 2.4% (0.1-12.9%) and in control subjects (0-9.0%). We conclude that ATM gene defects are not the major cause of radiotherapy complications in women with breast cancer.

Creating a Web site for on-line social support Melanocyte

This article focuses on the creation of an on-line social support web site, Melanocyte, for people who have been diagnosed with malignant melanoma, a deadly form of skin cancer. The web site was created, designed, and programmed by undergraduate baccalaureate nursing students at William Paterson University. The article includes discussion of rationales for a melanoma web site, support groups and the efficacy of on-line support, and the technical creation of the web site. The article also emphasizes the use of undergraduate nursing informatics and research to prepare future nurses, and the use of the Internet as an important nursing research tool.

The effectiveness of the routine clinic visit in the follow-up of breast cancer patients: analysis of a defined patient cohort

The study aimed to identify the proportion of patients with relapse or a contralateral breast tumour who are diagnosed as a consequence of regular follow-up in a specialist breast clinic after breast conserving surgery and radiotherapy for early breast cancer. A retrospective review was undertaken of 490 consecutive patients entered into a randomized clinical trial of radiotherapy fractionation at a single institution. As part of the trial, patients were reviewed in a multidisciplinary breast clinic 3-monthly for the first 3 years, 6-monthly between 3 and 5 years and annually thereafter, with biennial mammography. For this study, information was retrieved from hospital records to ascertain: (a) whether patients were symptomatic at the time of relapse or contralateral breast tumour; and (b) whether they presented at a scheduled appointment or brought their appointment dates forward. The subsequent management of patients with relapse was reviewed to determine whether or not this may have been influenced favourably by a policy of regular follow-up. Twenty-one (44%) of the 48 patients with locoregional relapse were asymptomatic. Of these, 17 were detected by clinical examination (that is, directly as a result of a routine clinic attendance), while four were detected by routine mammography. Ten of the 17 patients diagnosed by clinical examination had successful surgery for locoregional relapse and all have remained disease free. Five of 17 developed distant metastases within 6 months and two others had skin nodules on the breast excised. Only three of the 67 patients with distant relapses were asymptomatic. Two of the 11 patients with contralateral breast tumours were asymptomatic and were diagnosed on routine mammography. The benefits and cost-effectiveness of less rigid approaches to follow-up of breast cancer patients needs to be evaluated in large prospective randomized trials.

A comparison of adjuvant psychological therapy and supportive counselling in patients with cancer

This study compared the effectiveness of two psychological treatments in a group of 57 patients with various types of cancer attending the Royal Marsden Hospital. Patients referred for psychiatric assessment who met criteria for an abnormal adjustment reaction were randomly allocated to either 8 weeks of Adjuvant Psychological Therapy (APT), a problem-focused, cognitive behavioural treatment programme, or 8 weeks of a comparison treatment of supportive counselling. At 8 weeks from the baseline assessment, APT had produced a significantly greater change than the counselling intervention on fighting spirit, helplessness, coping with cancer, anxiety, and self-defined problems. At 4 months from baseline, APT had produced a significantly greater change than counselling on fighting spirit, coping with cancer, anxiety and self defined problems. It is concluded that APT produces greater change in anxiety, adjustment to cancer and use of coping strategies than a non-directive, supportive intervention over an 8 week period of treatment. This difference persists at follow up 4 months after baseline assessment.