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Dietrich CG, Geier A, Wasmuth HE, Matern S, Gartung C, de Waart DR, Elferink RPJO. Influence of biliary cirrhosis on the detoxification and elimination of a food derived carcinogen. Gut 2004; 53:1850-5. [PMID: 15542527 PMCID: PMC1774340 DOI: 10.1136/gut.2003.037507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The liver is the central organ for the detoxification of numerous xenobiotics, including carcinogens. We studied the influence of cholestasis and biliary cirrhosis on the detoxification, elimination, and tissue distribution of a model compound and food derived carcinogen, 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP). METHODS Wistar rats were injected with (14)C-PhIP into the portal vein one or six weeks after common bile duct ligation (CBDL). Bile flow was reconstituted, bile and urine were collected over 120 minutes, and metabolites were analysed using high performance liquid chromatograpy. Total tissue radioactivity levels in several organs as well as tissue bound (ethanol insoluble tissue fraction) radioactivity levels were determined. RESULTS Significant downregulation of the transport proteins multidrug resistance associated protein 2 and breast cancer resistance protein was observed in biliary cirrhosis. Biliary excretion of radioactivity was significantly reduced in cholestasis and biliary cirrhosis compared with controls (15 (2.9)% and 3.2 (1)% of the dose v 36.5 (2)%, respectively). Phase II metabolism was severely reduced in cirrhotic rats, resulting in a twofold increase in tissue radioactivity levels in the liver, kidney, and colon. Biliary cirrhosis increased tissue binding of reactive metabolites, as expressed in cpm/100 mg tissue in the liver and the colon (3267 (1218) v 1191 (429) in the liver, 3044 (1913) v 453 (253) in the colon). CONCLUSIONS Biliary cirrhosis induced by CBDL causes impaired metabolism and elimination of PhIP, and leads to higher tissue levels of potentially genotoxic metabolites in the liver and colon of rats. These data may explain the increased incidence of hepatic and extrahepatic cancers in cholestasis and liver cirrhosis.
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102
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Seppen J, van der Rijt R, Looije N, van Til NP, Lamers WH, Oude Elferink RPJ. Long-term correction of bilirubin UDPglucuronyltransferase deficiency in rats by in utero lentiviral gene transfer. Mol Ther 2004; 8:593-9. [PMID: 14529832 DOI: 10.1016/s1525-0016(03)00234-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Bilirubin is glucuronidated by bilirubin UDP-glucuronyltransferase (UGT1A1) before biliary excretion. Because bilirubin is toxic, patients with Crigler-Najjar type I (CN), who have no UGT1A1 activity, suffer severe brain damage early in childhood. The Gunn rat is the model for CN type 1. Gunn rat fetuses were injected with 10(7) transducing units of UGT1A1 lentiviral vector at the end of the third trimester on embryonic day 19. Serum bilirubin of injected Gunn rats was lowered by 45% compared to untreated controls. This decrease was highly significant (P < 10(6)) and was sustained for more than a year. In treated Gunn rats, bilirubin glucuronides were present in bile and UGT1A1 protein was detected in tissue. Liver, intestine, stomach, pancreas, and other organs were transduced and mostly contained 1% or less vector copies per genome. Tissue distribution was variable among experimental animals but high transduction levels were seen in pancreas and intestine in most animals. Immunohistochemistry of these organs revealed transduction of pancreatic acinar cells and intestinal epithelium. Injection of a lentiviral UGT1A1 vector into third-trimester Gunn rat fetuses corrects the metabolic deficiency and mediates a reduction of serum bilirubin levels that would be therapeutic in humans.
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Elferink RPJO, Ottenhoff R, Fricker G, Seward DJ, Ballatori N, Boyer J. Lack of biliary lipid excretion in the little skate, Raja erinacea, indicates the absence of functional Mdr2, Abcg5, and Abcg8 transporters. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2004; 286:G762-8. [PMID: 14701720 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00424.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The ABC transporters bile salt export pump (BSEP; encoded by the ABCB11 gene), MDR3 P-glycoprotein (ABCB4), and sterolin 1 and 2 (ABCG5 and ABCG8) are crucial for the excretion of bile salt, phospholipid, and cholesterol, respectively, into the bile of mammals. The current paradigm is that phospholipid excretion mainly serves to protect membranes of the biliary tree against bile salt micelles. Bile salt composition and cytotoxicity, however, differ greatly between species. We investigated whether biliary phospholipid and cholesterol excretion occurs in a primitive species, the little skate, which almost exclusively excretes the sulphated bile alcohol scymnolsulphate. We observed no phospholipid and very little cholesterol excretion into bile of these animals. Conversely, when scymnolsulphate was added to the perfusate of isolated mouse liver perfusions, it was very well capable of driving biliary phospholipid and cholesterol excretion. Furthermore, in an erythrocyte cytolysis assay, scymnolsulphate was found to be at least as cytotoxic as taurocholate. These results demonstrate that the little skate does not have a system for the excretion of phospholipid and cholesterol and that both the MDR3 and the two half-transporter genes, ABCG5 and ABCG8, have evolved relatively late in evolution to mediate biliary lipid excretion. Little skate plasma membranes may be protected against bile salt micelles mainly by their high sphingomyelin content.
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104
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Dietrich CG, Geier A, Salein N, Lammert F, Roeb E, Oude Elferink RPJ, Matern S, Gartung C. Consequences of bile duct obstruction on intestinal expression and function of multidrug resistance-associated protein 2. Gastroenterology 2004; 126:1044-53. [PMID: 15057744 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2003.12.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2), a transporter of organic anions in hepatocytes, renal epithelial cells, and enterocytes, is differentially regulated in liver and kidney during cholestasis, but little is known about its regulation in the intestine. METHODS We investigated duodenal protein expression of MRP2 in male Sprague-Dawley rats with bile duct ligation (BDL) or biliary diversion as well as in 20 cholestatic patients with biliary obstruction. RESULTS In biliary obstruction, but not biliary depletion, intestinal Mrp2 protein mass was reduced to 9.3% +/- 5.5% of controls and mRNA to 40.5% +/- 20.8% of controls after 7 days. Binding of RXR alpha:RAR alpha heterodimers to the Mrp2 promoter element was significantly reduced in BDL rats. Cytokine blockade identified IL-1 beta as the responsible inducer of Mrp2 down-regulation. In humans with obstructive cholestasis, intestinal MRP2 protein expression was reduced to 27.3% +/- 20.3% of control patients; this reduction correlated with the duration of cholestasis and was reversible after reconstitution of bile flow by stenting of the common bile duct. However, no significant differences in MRP2 mRNA levels were detected by RT-PCR in humans. Intestinal protein expression of P-glycoprotein, breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP), and MRP3 was unchanged. In BDL rats, oral bioavailability of the Mrp2 substrate and food-derived carcinogen 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) was elevated 2.5 times compared with sham-operated rats. CONCLUSIONS Cholestasis promotes down-regulation of MRP2 expression in the duodenum of rats and humans. Selective down-regulation during cholestasis might be the consequence of species-specific transcriptional and posttranscriptional mechanisms and contributes to higher bioavailability of a food-derived carcinogen.
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105
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Pawlikowska L, Groen A, Eppens EF, Kunne C, Ottenhoff R, Looije N, Knisely AS, Killeen NP, Bull LN, Elferink RPJO, Freimer NB. A mouse genetic model for familial cholestasis caused by ATP8B1 mutations reveals perturbed bile salt homeostasis but no impairment in bile secretion. Hum Mol Genet 2004; 13:881-92. [PMID: 14976163 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddh100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in ATP8B1, a broadly expressed P-type ATPase, result, through unknown mechanisms, in disorders of bile secretion. These disorders vary in severity from mild and episodic to progressive with liver failure. We generated Atp8b1G308V/G308V mutant mice, which carry a mutation orthologous to that present in homozygous form in patients from the Amish index kindred for severe ATP8B1 disease. In contrast to human patients, Atp8b1(G308V/G308V) mice had unimpaired bile secretion and no liver damage, but showed mild abnormalities including depressed weight at weaning and elevated serum bile salt levels. We challenged the hepatobiliary metabolism of Atp8b1G308V/G308V mice by administering exogenous bile salts. Upon bile salt feeding, Atp8b1G308V/G308V mice, but not wild-types, demonstrated serum bile salt accumulation, hepatic injury and expansion of the systemic bile salt pool. Unexpectedly, this failure of bile salt homeostasis occurred in the absence of any defect in hepatic bile secretion. Upon infusion of a hydrophobic bile salt, wild-type mice developed cholestasis while Atp8b1G308V/G308V mice maintained high biliary output and more extensively rehydroxylated the infused bile salt. Increased bile salt hydroxylation, which reduces bile salt toxicity, may explain the milder phenotype in Atp8b1G308V/G308V mice compared with humans with the equivalent mutation. These results demonstrate the key role of Atp8b1 in bile salt homeostasis and highlight the importance of bile salt hydroxylation in the prevention of cholestasis. The mouse phenotype reveals that loss of Atp8b1 disrupts bile salt homeostasis without impairment of canalicular bile secretion; in humans this process is likely to be obscured by early onset of severe liver disease.
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Abstract
It is generally assumed that HDL is the obligate transport vehicle for 'reverse cholesterol transport', the pathway for removal of excess cholesterol from peripheral tissues via the liver into bile and subsequent excretion via the feces. During the last few years, intensive research has generated exciting new data on the separate processes involved in reverse cholesterol transport. Many 'new' proteins, particularly members of the ABC transporter and nuclear receptor subfamilies, that mediate or influence cholesterol fluxes have been identified and characterized. An important role of the intestine in regulation of cholesterol homeostasis is emerging. In this paper, new insights into mechanisms of reverse cholesterol are reviewed.
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107
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Medina JF, Recalde S, Prieto J, Lecanda J, Saez E, Funk CD, Vecino P, van Roon MA, Ottenhoff R, Bosma PJ, Bakker CT, Elferink RPJO. Anion exchanger 2 is essential for spermiogenesis in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2003; 100:15847-52. [PMID: 14673081 PMCID: PMC307656 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2536127100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Na+-independent anion exchangers (AE) mediate electroneutral exchange of Cl- for HCO3- ions across cell membranes, being involved in intracellular pH and cell volume regulation and in transepithelial hydroionic fluxes. Bicarbonate activation of adenylyl cyclase is known to be necessary for sperm motility and sperm capacitation, and a few studies have suggested a possible role of AE carriers in reproduction. Among the four AE genes identified in mammals thus far, only Ae2 (Slc4a2) has been determined to be expressed in the male reproductive system, especially in developing spermatozoa and in epididymal epithelium. Most AE genes drive alternative transcription, which in mouse Ae2 results in several Ae2 isoforms. Here, we generated mice carrying a targeted disruption of Ae2 that prevents the expression of the three AE2 isoforms (Ae2a, Ae2b1, and Ae2b2) normally found in mouse testes. Male Ae2-/- mice (but not female Ae2-/- mice) are infertile. Histopathological analysis of Ae2-/- testes shows an interruption of spermiogenesis, with only a few late spermatids and a complete absence of spermatozoa in the seminiferous tubules. The number of apoptotic bodies is increased in the seminiferous tubules and in the epididymis, which also shows squamous metaplasia of the epididymal epithelium. Our findings reveal an essential role of Ae2 in mouse spermiogenesis and stress the recently postulated involvement of bicarbonate in germ-cell differentiation through the bicarbonate-sensitive soluble-adenylyl-cyclase pathway.
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Abstract
Over the past decade, enormous progress has been made in identifying the mechanisms that underlie hepatobiliary excretion. A set of transport proteins mediates the canalicular transport of most important bile constituents. With the discovery of these transporter genes, the mechanism of bile formation could be partly elucidated and genetic defects caused by mutations in these genes identified. This progress is crucial not only for paediatric and adult hepatology, but also for pharmacology, because the characterization of these transport systems provides tools for the prediction of the pharmacokinetics of drugs. Indeed, there is a growing interest on the part of the pharmaceutical industry for research into transport systems in general and hepatobiliary secretion in particular. For all of these transporter genes, knockout mice have been bred that allow one to assess the in vivo function of each of these transporters with regard to their role in physiology and drug elimination.
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109
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Jonker JW, Buitelaar M, Wagenaar E, Van Der Valk MA, Scheffer GL, Scheper RJ, Plosch T, Kuipers F, Elferink RPJO, Rosing H, Beijnen JH, Schinkel AH. The breast cancer resistance protein protects against a major chlorophyll-derived dietary phototoxin and protoporphyria. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002; 99:15649-54. [PMID: 12429862 PMCID: PMC137771 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.202607599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 607] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The breast cancer resistance protein (BCRPABCG2) is a member of the ATP-binding cassette family of drug transporters and confers resistance to various anticancer drugs. We show here that mice lacking Bcrp1Abcg2 become extremely sensitive to the dietary chlorophyll-breakdown product pheophorbide a, resulting in severe, sometimes lethal phototoxic lesions on light-exposed skin. Pheophorbide a occurs in various plant-derived foods and food supplements. Bcrp1 transports pheophorbide a and is highly efficient in limiting its uptake from ingested food. Bcrp1(-/-) mice also displayed a previously unknown type of protoporphyria. Erythrocyte levels of the heme precursor and phototoxin protoporphyrin IX, which is structurally related to pheophorbide a, were increased 10-fold. Transplantation with wild-type bone marrow cured the protoporphyria and reduced the phototoxin sensitivity of Bcrp1(-/-) mice. These results indicate that humans or animals with low or absent BCRP activity may be at increased risk for developing protoporphyria and diet-dependent phototoxicity and provide a striking illustration of the importance of drug transporters in protection from toxicity of normal food constituents.
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MESH Headings
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily G, Member 2
- ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters/genetics
- ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters/physiology
- Administration, Oral
- Animals
- Bone Marrow Transplantation
- Cell Line
- Chlorophyll/administration & dosage
- Chlorophyll/analogs & derivatives
- Chlorophyll/pharmacokinetics
- Chlorophyll/toxicity
- Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid
- Dermatitis, Phototoxic/etiology
- Dermatitis, Phototoxic/prevention & control
- Diet/adverse effects
- Drug Resistance/genetics
- Female
- Fetus/metabolism
- Fibroblasts/metabolism
- Genetic Predisposition to Disease
- Medicago sativa/adverse effects
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred Strains
- Mice, Knockout
- Molecular Structure
- Neoplasm Proteins
- Photosensitizing Agents/administration & dosage
- Photosensitizing Agents/pharmacokinetics
- Photosensitizing Agents/toxicity
- Porphyria, Hepatoerythropoietic/genetics
- Porphyria, Hepatoerythropoietic/prevention & control
- Porphyria, Hepatoerythropoietic/therapy
- Porphyrins/metabolism
- Porphyrins/pharmacokinetics
- Pregnancy
- Protoporphyrins/blood
- Protoporphyrins/chemistry
- Radiation Chimera
- Topotecan/pharmacokinetics
- Topotecan/toxicity
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110
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Fouassier L, Kinnman N, Lefèvre G, Lasnier E, Rey C, Poupon R, Elferink RPJO, Housset C. Contribution of mrp2 in alterations of canalicular bile formation by the endothelin antagonist bosentan. J Hepatol 2002; 37:184-91. [PMID: 12127422 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-8278(02)00107-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS Bosentan, a dual endothelin ET(A/B) receptor antagonist, may cause dose-dependent reversible cholestatic liver injury. We herein tested whether bosentan or metabolites, both eliminated in bile, induce alterations in bile secretion. METHODS Bile flow and output of bile constituents were monitored in pentobarbital-anesthetized rats with biliary fistulas. Normal and TR(-) rats with a genetic defect in mrp2, received bosentan intravenous injections. RESULTS Bosentan bolus intravenous injections of 0.1-10mg/kg triggered a dose-dependent increase in biliary bilirubin excretion. In addition, doses (> or =10mg/kg) caused a sustained increase in canalicular bile salt-independent bile flow, combined with significant increases in the concentration and output of glutathione and of bicarbonate in bile. In rats receiving bosentan (> or =10mg/kg), both under basal conditions and under intravenous taurocholate perfusion (2micromol/min/kg), phospholipid and cholesterol secretions were profoundly inhibited and uncoupled from bile salt secretion. In TR(-) rats, the choleretic effect of bosentan was reduced to non-significant levels. The stimulation of bilirubin secretion and the uncoupling of phospholipid from bile salt secretion were absent, whereas that of cholesterol was maintained. CONCLUSIONS Bosentan alters canalicular bile formation in major part via mrp2-mediated mechanisms. Intermittent uncoupling of lipid from bile salt secretion may contribute to bosentan hepatic adverse reaction.
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111
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Seppen J, Rijnberg M, Cooreman MP, Oude Elferink RPJ. Lentiviral vectors for efficient transduction of isolated primary quiescent hepatocytes. J Hepatol 2002; 36:459-65. [PMID: 11943415 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-8278(01)00308-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS Lentiviral vectors were designed to obtain efficient transduction of primary quiescent hepatocytes. METHODS A hepatitis B virus (HBV) fragment containing enhancers and posttranscriptional regulatory element was used to increase expression levels. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) central polypurine tract (PPT) was used to increase transduction of quiescent cells. HBV elements were incorporated downstream and the HIV PPT was incorporated upstream of green fluorescent protein expression cassettes in third generation self inactivating lentiviral vectors. RESULTS The HBV fragment increased mean fluorescence of transduced HepG2 hepatoma cells 4.3+/-1.7-fold and 2.3-6.0-fold in various other cell types. A role of HBV x protein in the function of the HBV element was excluded. The HBV element increased the number of transducing units per pg of HIV p24 twofold. The unmodified lentiviral vector transduced 5+/-1% of cultured quiescent primary rat hepatocytes, HBV elements increased transduction to 54+/-13% and increased fluorescence 2.8+/-0.6-fold. The PPT increased transduction to 47+/-11% and increased fluorescence 2.3+/-0.4-fold. The vector with PPT and HBV elements transduced 68+/-10% of hepatocytes and increased fluorescence synergistically, 17+/-6 fold. CONCLUSIONS This study shows that HBV elements or HIV PPT are required for efficient transduction of primary hepatocytes.
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112
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Scheffer GL, Kool M, de Haas M, de Vree JML, Pijnenborg ACLM, Bosman DK, Elferink RPJO, van der Valk P, Borst P, Scheper RJ. Tissue distribution and induction of human multidrug resistant protein 3. J Transl Med 2002; 82:193-201. [PMID: 11850532 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.3780411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The multidrug resistance protein (MRP) family consists of several members and, for some of these transporter proteins, distinct roles in multidrug resistance and normal tissue functions have been well established (MRP1 and MRP2) or are still under investigation (MRP3). MRP3 expression studies in human tissues have been largely restricted to the mRNA level. In this report we extended these studies and further explored MRP3 expression at the protein level. Western blot and immunohistochemistry with two MRP3-specific monoclonal antibodies, M(3)II-9 and M(3)II-21, showed MRP3 protein to be present in adrenal gland, and kidney and in tissues of the intestinal tract: colon, pancreas, gallbladder, and liver. In epithelia, MRP3 was found to be located at the basolateral sides of cell membranes. In normal liver, MRP3 was detected at lower levels than anticipated from the mRNA data and was found present mainly in the bile ducts. In livers from patients with various forms of cholestasis, MRP3 levels were frequently increased in the proliferative cholangiocytes, with sometimes additional staining of the basolateral membranes of the hepatocytes. This was especially evident in patients with type 3 progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis. The present results support the view that MRP3 plays a role in the cholehepatic and enterohepatic circulation of bile and in protection within the biliary tree and tissues along the bile circulation route against toxic bile constituents. The possible functional roles for MRP3 in the adrenal gland and in the kidney remain as yet unknown. In a panel of 34 tumor samples of various histogenetic origins, distinct amounts of MRP3 were detected in a limited number of cases, including lung, ovarian, and pancreatic cancers. These findings may be of potential clinical relevance when considering the drug treatment regimens for these tumor types.
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