Preparing for bioterrorism: category A agents

September 11, 2001, brought the possibility of biologic acts of terrorism against the United States into the national consciousness. As the American people brace themselves for this new threat to the national well-being, clinicians must understand how to prevent, recognize, and treat the biologic agents that could be used in terrorist attacks. This article discusses the most likely biologic agents, including diagnostic laboratory procedures, treatment options, psychological effects, special populations, and reporting requirements.

Infant botulism: case reports and review

Infant Botulism (IB) is a relatively uncommon, though potentially life-threatening neuroparalytic illness caused by the toxins elaborated by Clostridium botulinum (C botulinum). We describe two cases of Infant Botulism. Both these infants presented with a sepsis-like picture and were unsuspectingly treated with the conventional antibiotics ampicillin and gentamicin. The neuroparalytic syndrome of both infants was probably potentiated by the use of gentamicin. We suggest that cefotaxime be carefully considered instead of gentamicin in the initial management of infants presenting with a sepsis-like clinical picture and associated history of constipation, recent onset of hypotonia, poor feeding and/or drooling. Clinical trials evaluating human Botulism Immune Globulin (BIG) are under way by the California Department of Health. This article comes at a very timely moment because once FDA approved, BIG will be the only specific treatment available for this illness.

Wound botulism in drug addicts in the United Kingdom

Clostridium novyi has recently been identified as the causative organism responsible for the deaths of 35 heroin addicts who had injected themselves intramuscularly. We present two heroin addicts who developed C. botulinum infection following intramuscular or subcutaneous injection of heroin. Like C. novyi, this grows under anaerobic conditions and clinical presentation may be similar; however, descending motor or autonomic signs are invariably present in botulism. The prognosis is good if the diagnosis is made early and appropriate treatment commenced.

[Poisoning with botulinum neurotoxin--diagnostic difficulties]

Intoxication with botulinum neurotoxin, which occurs frequently in Poland, may cause serious diagnostic difficulties. As no assays for laboratory detection of botulinum toxin are available and the biological test on mice requires time before results are obtained, diagnosis must be based on clinical findings and patient's epidemiological history. Quick diagnosis and early administration of therapy with equine antitoxin is essential for patient's recovery. The effectiveness of antitoxin therapy is considered to be significantly reduced if the treatment is not started shortly after the onset of the disease. We describe a case of a patient in whom, because of diagnostic difficulties, antitoxin therapy was introduced with much delay. However, it proved highly efficient and lead to gradual recovery.

Clostridium difficile colitis associated with infant botulism: near-fatal case analogous to Hirschsprung's enterocolitis

We present the first five reported cases of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) in children with infant botulism caused by Clostridium botulinum. We compare two fulminant cases of colitis in children with colonic stasis, the first caused by infant botulism and the second caused by Hirschsprung's disease. In both children, colitis was accompanied by hypovolemia, hypotension, profuse ascites, pulmonary effusion, restrictive pulmonary disease, and femoral-caval thrombosis. Laboratory findings included pronounced leukocytosis, hypoalbuminemia, hyponatremia, coagulopathy, and, when examined in the child with infant botulism, detection of C. difficile toxin in ascites. CDAD recurred in both children, even though difficile cytotoxin was undetectable in stool after prolonged initial therapy. Four children who had both infant botulism and milder CDAD also are described. Colonic stasis, whether acquired, as in infant botulism, or congenital, as in Hirschsprung's disease, may contribute to the susceptibility to and the severity of CDAD.

Outbreak of type A botulism and development of a botulism surveillance and antitoxin release system in Argentina

CONTEXT

Botulism is an important public health problem in Argentina, but obtaining antitoxin rapidly has been difficult because global supplies are limited. In January 1998, a botulism outbreak occurred in Buenos Aires.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the source of the outbreak, improve botulism surveillance, and establish an antitoxin supply and release system in Argentina.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

Cohort study in January 1998 of 21 drivers of a specific bus route in urban Buenos Aires.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Occurrence of botulism and implication of a particular food as the vehicle causing this outbreak.

RESULTS

Nine (43%) of 21 bus drivers developed botulism, presenting with gastroenteritis, symptoms of acute cranial nerve dysfunction including ptosis, dysphagia, blurred vision, and motor weakness. One driver experienced respiratory failure. Type A toxin was detected from 3 of 9 patients' serum samples. All drivers received botulism antitoxin; there were no fatalities. Consumption of matambre (Argentine meat roll) was significantly associated with illness. Among 11 persons who ate matambre, 9 developed illness, compared with none of those who did not eat it (P<.001). The matambre had been cooked in water at 78 degrees C to 80 degrees C for 4 hours, sealed in heat-shrinked plastic wrap, and stored in refrigerators that did not cool adequately. Subsequently, a botulism surveillance and antitoxin release system was established.

CONCLUSIONS

Insufficient cooking time and temperatures, storage in heat-shrinked plastic wrap, and inadequate refrigeration likely contributed to Clostridium botulinum spore survival, germination, and toxin production. A rapid-response botulism surveillance and antitoxin release system in Argentina should provide more timely distribution of antitoxin to patients and may serve as a model for other nations.

Experience with the use of an investigational F(ab')2 heptavalent botulism immune globulin of equine origin during an outbreak of type E botulism in Egypt

During an outbreak of type E foodborne botulism in Cairo in 1991, an investigational equine F(ab')2 "despeciated" heptavalent botulism immune globulin (dBIG) was provided to the Egyptian Ministry of Health by the U.S. Army. Of 54 patients known to have been treated with antitoxins, 4 received commercially available trivalent antitoxins, 45 received dBIG, and 5 received both commercial antitoxin and dBIG. Physicians recorded side effects in 10 (22%) of 45 patients who received dBIG; in nine cases, reactions were considered "mild," and in one case they were believed to be serum sickness. In contrast, possible serum sickness during hospitalization was recorded for two of four patients who were receiving commercial antitoxins. No complications of therapy were noted for any patient who was receiving both antitoxin types. In a separate study, 31 patients were contacted about their reactions to the antitoxin by telephone after discharge from the hospital. Seven (54%) of 13 patients attributed symptoms that they experienced while they were hospitalized to receipt of dBIG, while four (44%) of nine patients who indicated that they had received commercial antitoxins and one (20%) of five who received both commercial antitoxin and dBIG reported side effects before discharge. Data on the efficacy of the antitoxins were not obtained. In our experience, equine dBIG was at least as safe as commercially available antitoxins in treating type E foodborne botulism.

[A new approach to the prevention and treatment of lesions caused by bacterial toxins: prospects for using inhibitors of ADP ribosylation]

The damaging action of a number of bacterial toxins is determined by their capacity for blocking the specific functions of regulatory proteins of eukaryotic cells by ADP-ribosylation. Experiments, made with the use of type B botulinic toxin and 3,N-butyrylaminobenzamide as an example, have demonstrated that specific ADP-ribosylation inhibitors are capable of making up a new group of highly active antagonists of microbial toxins.

Retrospective study of 108 cases of botulism in Poitiers, France

Botulism, a food-borne toxin-mediated disease caused by Clostridium botulinum is still a common disease, which is most frequent in the rural environment; 108 cases, 66 males and 42 females, average age 32 years, were recorded from 1965 to 1990 in the infectious disease department of the University Hospital of Poitiers (France). In 83% of patients, the food responsible was home-cured ham. Mean incubation time was 3.4 days; digestive symptoms were observed in 93% of cases, ocular symptoms in 92% and urinary tract dysfunction in 22%. A scale of severity was used to classify the patients into those suffering from severe (6), intermediate (50) and mild (52) forms of the disease. Botulinum toxin type B was found in 36 (52%) of 69 blood samples and in 41 (51%) of 81 samples of the suspected food. From 1965 to 1976, 44 patients were treated with both toxoid and heterologous equine serotherapy. Since 1976, 29 patients have been treated with guanidine hydrochloride (35 mg/kg daily) and 35 patients with guanidine hydrochloride plus heterologous serotherapy. All 108 patients recovered without any sequelae.

Development of infant botulism in a 3-year-old female with neuroblastoma following autologous bone marrow transplantation: potential use of human botulism immune globulin

Infant botulism is a rare disease caused by the release of toxin produced in the intestinal tract by Clostridium botulinum. The disease primarily affects infants under 1 year of age. We report a 3-year-old child with stage IV neuroblastoma who developed symptoms of progressive motor weakness, bulbar palsy and respiratory failure 42 days after autologous BMT. The diagnosis of infant botulism was established by identifying botulism toxin in the stool. Human botulism immune globulin (HBIG) was administered. Following the diagnosis, the patient made significant recovery over the next 7 weeks and was successfully extubated from mechanical ventilation. However, her neuroblastoma eventually recurred and she subsequently died of progressive disease. Although the etiology of the development of infant botulism in this case following autologous BMT still remains unclear, alteration of the intestinal microbial environment from gut sterilization and laminar airflow room isolation or, alternatively, immune suppression during pre- and post-autologous BMT and activation of endogenous spores may have contributed to the development of this disease. The use of HBIG in children with botulism over 1 year of age may be beneficial.

Human type A botulism and treatment with 3,4-diaminopyridine

3,4-diaminopyridine was evaluated for its ability to improve muscle strength, respiratory function and electromyographic compound muscle action potentials in human botulism. In a double blind, placebo controlled study, 3,4-diaminopyridine failed to improve these parameters in a 31-year old patient with severe food-borne type A botulism. The addition of an anti-cholinesterase medication to the 3,4-diaminopyridine did not add any benefit. Lack of clinical improvement from 3,4-diaminopyridine in this patient differed from some reports of benefit in animals experimentally poisoned with type A botulinum toxin.

Human botulism

The survival of Clostridium botulinum spores in improperly processed foods varies considerably with pH and temperature. The greatest risk arises from commercial or home-prepared condiments, vegetables, non-acid fruits and preserved raw fish. Clinical problems with botulism arise from the rapidity of development, unexpected manifestations involving the autonomic nervous system, including paralytic ileus, gastric dilatation and hypotension, and the need to ensure ventilation.

[Two treated cases of botulism]

Botulism is a severe neuroparalytic disease caused by the neurotoxins of Clostridium botulinum which exert their effects on peripheral nerve junctions. Guillain-Barre syndrome, Myasthenia Gravis, acute Poliomyelitis and diphtheria must be considered in the differential diagnosis. In this study we have discussed two patients who were treated in our clinic, the differential diagnosis and the role of anti-Cholinesterase drugs in the treatment.