Foot and mouth disease in Brazil and its control--an overview of its history, present situation and perspectives for eradication

The objective of eliminating foot and mouth disease (FMD) in Brazil has been mainly motivated by the constant preoccupation of Brazilian authorities, livestock breeders and the meat industry with avoiding economic losses due to export restrictions. In 1934, the first national sanitary legislation was enacted, and the Pan-American Foot and Mouth Disease Center in Rio de Janeiro was inaugurated in 1951, with international participation. An overview is given of the past campaigns against FMD, the legislation, policies and field activities. The reasons for the failure of the past campaigns are discussed. The structure of the existing campaign and the present epidemiological situation are explained, and the further possibilities of being recognized as an FMD-free country are discussed.

What are production diseases, and how do we manage them?

The term "Production Diseases" referred traditionally to those diseases induced by management practices, metabolic diseases are typical examples. Recently, the term "Production related diseases" has been enhanced to include other traits, such as infertility, and diseases such as mastitis and lameness that might involve infectious agents but exacerbated by nutritional or managemental factors. The presentation deals with Production Diseases in the context of integrated herd health programs, using periparturient diseases and traits as an example. Studies, based on 9377 lactations of cows calving in the period 1995 through 1998 from the author's practice in 7 Israeli Holstein herds, show that most periparturient diseases and traits are followed by increased culling, lower production associated with late peaks and lower persistency, and impaired fertility. The effects are independent of other diseases, and at times are long lasting. Production Diseases are often multifactorial and appear at the same stage of lactation. Independent relationships among them must be established, so that common cause effects, direct and indirect causal associations, and incidental relationships can be differentiated. Control of Production Diseases often involves various disciplines and therefore calls for a "multivariate approach". Such an approach, centered on the herd, has led to the adaptation of integrated programs for herd health. The programs are characterized by the adaptation of multidisciplinary, multifactorial, and a population approach to clinical entities. Preventive measures and routine examinations are the hard core of programs, but deeper involvement in nutrition, production and economics is called for. A routine monitoring and causal analysis of periparturient traits and diseases, production, fertility and abortions are carried out, relevant data are processed, and monitoring reports are issued routinely. Five different linear regression models evaluate factors responsible for losses of a) peak milk yield; b) economy corrected (ECM) peak milk yield; c) extended 305-d milk yield; d) daily 3.5% FCM in the first 90 days in milk; and e) persistencies. Three different logistic and linear regression models evaluate factors that contribute to a) "non pregnancy to first service"; b) unobserved heat; and c) open days. Narrowing down the field of investigation is essential for an intervention to be efficient. Conclusions are drawn from the epidemiological study and the proposed recommendations are weighed with cost/benefit considerations. Possible losses are quantified and used with expected return value in decision analysis. Production Diseases are at times the outcome of managemental mistakes brought about by the drive for higher yields. Integrated herd health programs help to control the negative effects of management by enhancing production under optimal feeding and management regimens. The estimated contribution of improved management to the Israeli national herd phenotypic increase in yield, and the improved fertility that followed the increase in milk yield presented, show that the goal is within reach.

Comparison of a multivalent viral vaccine program versus a univalent viral vaccine program on animal health, feedlot performance, and carcass characteristics of feedlot calves

A field study was conducted under commercial feedlot conditions at 2 sites in western Canada to determine the relative effects of a univalent viral vaccine (MLV 1) program versus a multivalent viral vaccine (MLV 4) program on animal health; feedlot performance; and carcass characteristic variables of fall-placed, auction market derived, feedlot calves. Five thousand one hundred and sixty-three calves were processed and randomly allocated to 1 of 2 experimental groups as follows: MLV 1, which received a modified live infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) virus vaccine upon arrival at the feedlot and again at approximately 70 days on feed (DOF); or MLV 4, which received a modified live IBR virus, parainfluenza-3 virus, bovine viral diarrhea virus, and bovine respiratory syncytial virus vaccine upon arrival at the feedlot and again at approximately 70 DOF. A total of 20 pens (10 pens at the site located near High River, Alberta and 10 pens at the site located near Vegreville, Alberta) were allocated to the study. On both a live and carcass weight basis, final weight, weight gain, and average daily gain (ADG) were significantly (P < 0.05) improved in the MLV 4 group as compared with the MLV 1 group. However, there were no significant (P > or = 0.05) differences in DOF, daily dry matter intake, dry matter intake to gain ratio (DM:G) live, or DM:G carcass between the experimental groups. In addition, there were no significant (P > or = 0.05) differences between the experimental groups in any of the carcass characteristic variables measured. The initial undifferentiated fever (UF) treatment rate was significantly (P < 0.05) lower in the MLV 4 group as compared with the MLV 1 group. There were no significant (P > or = 0.05) differences in the other measures of health between the experimental groups. In the economic analysis, there was a net advantage of $0.74 CDN per animal in the MLV 4 group as compared with the MLV 1 group due to lower initial UF treatment and improved ADG, even though the cost of the vaccine program was higher in the MLV 4 group.

Human health benefits from livestock vaccination for brucellosis: case study

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the economic benefit, cost-effectiveness, and distribution of benefit of improving human health in Mongolia through the control of brucellosis by mass vaccination of livestock.

METHODS

Cost-effectiveness and economic benefit for human society and the agricultural sector of mass vaccination against brucellosis was modelled. The intervention consisted of a planned 10-year livestock mass vaccination campaign using Rev-1 livestock vaccine for small ruminants and S19 livestock vaccine for cattle. Cost-effectiveness, expressed as cost per disability-adjusted life year (DALY) averted, was the primary outcome.

FINDINGS

In a scenario of 52% reduction of brucellosis transmission between animals achieved by mass vaccination, a total of 49,027 DALYs could be averted. Estimated intervention costs were US$ 8.3 million, and the overall benefit was US$ 26.6 million. This results in a net present value of US$ 18.3 million and an average benefit-cost ratio for society of 3.2 (2.27-4.37). If the costs of the intervention were shared between the sectors in proportion to the benefit to each, the public health sector would contribute 11%, which gives a cost-effectiveness of US$ 19.1 per DALY averted (95% confidence interval 5.3-486.8). If private economic gain because of improved human health was included, the health sector should contribute 42% to the intervention costs and the cost-effectiveness would decrease to US$ 71.4 per DALY averted.

CONCLUSION

If the costs of vaccination of livestock against brucellosis were allocated to all sectors in proportion to the benefits, the intervention might be profitable and cost effective for the agricultural and health sectors.

Milk and dairy products in the 21st century. Prepared for the 50th anniversary of the journal of agricultural and food chemistry

Dairying into the 21st century will largely continue with the trends seen in the past few decades, although there is always the possibility of an unlikely but disruptive event. The politics of globalization will potentially be important in freeing up global trade in dairy products. Production on the farm will become increasingly efficient, resulting in continuing price benefits to the consumer. At the same time, increasing attention will be paid by the consumer, producer, and manufacturer to safety and quality issues. Environmental concerns will increase in importance, and the issue of methane production may be important for the industry over the next two decades. It is unlikely that genetically modified milk will be introduced soon, even if public acceptance ceases to be an issue; however, the use of genetic markers for accelerated genetic improvement of cows will have rapidly increasing importance. Despite increasing pressure from nonmilk alternatives, milk and dairy will still be the best sources of nutrition for the young and for traditional dairy products. Consumer concerns will be of overriding importance for the industry, and the safety of dairy foods must become absolute. Recent advances in the chemical, physical, and information sciences and technologies will be utilized to gain greater understanding of the increasingly complex food systems and to support the consumer objectives.

The dynamics and impact of foot and mouth disease in smallholder farming systems in South-East Asia: a case study in Laos

There is a general lack of data on the different patterns of dynamics and impact of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in South-East Asia and the impact the disease has on different sectors, in particular the smallholder sector in which livestock play such an important role. A pilot study was conducted of a recent outbreak of FMD that swept across the southern part of Laos during the second half of 1999. The main objectives of the study were to investigate the possible routes of transmission of the disease and the impact of FMD on the predominantly smallholder rice/livestock production system of Savannakhet Province. The study was performed by group interviews of farmers in ten villages, located in five districts across the width of the Province, and of district and provincial veterinary officials. Results suggested that the infection had probably been introduced from the eastern border and had spread rapidly west, along a principal trading route of pigs, cattle and buffalo. In the process, many villages adjacent to this trading route became infected and the disease spread rapidly within infected villages. The disease had a significant impact on the agricultural system, but the impact would have been much greater had the epidemic occurred during the season of paddy field preparation. Mortality was observed in young buffalo, cattle and pigs, and long periods of morbidity were observed in buffalo, often requiring extended treatment. The sale of livestock for cash was severely restricted, creating additional repercussions on that sector. It was concluded that the most appropriate approach to FMD control would be to prevent infected animals from entering the principal trading routes for pigs, cattle and buffalo. This will require the involvement of all the stakeholders of the livestock industry, including traders and veterinary authorities. A further tactic to be considered would be to protect livestock systems adjacent to these trading routes by vaccination. An economic study of the market incentives of both traders and smallholders is recommended and this approach is advocated in other parts of South-East Asia where livestock trading routes present the major risk of FMD outbreaks.

The prevalence and economic importance of bovine fasciolosis in Kenya--an analysis of abattoir data

A retrospective study covering a period of 10 years (1990-1999) was carried out using post mortem meat inspection records at the Veterinary Department Headquarters at Kabete to determine the prevalence and economic importance of bovine fasciolosis in Kenya. Meat inspection records from abattoirs in 38 districts distributed over seven out of the eight provinces of Kenya were examined. Prevalence of fasciolosis was calculated as the number of cattle found to be infected with Fasciola, expressed as a percentage of the total number of cattle slaughtered. Using the average weight and market price of a bovine liver, the monetary loss occasioned by condemnation of Fasciola infected livers was calculated. A survey was also carried out at Dagoretti slaughterhouse complex in Nairobi to determine the relative occurrence of F. gigantica and F. hepatica in slaughtered cattle. Cattle slaughtered at Dagoretti slaughterhouse originate from all parts of the country. A total of 5,421,188 cattle were slaughtered in the seven provinces of Kenya during the 10-year period and 427,931 (8%) of these cattle were infected with Fasciola. The region with the highest prevalence of fasciolosis was Western Province (16%) followed, in descending order, by Eastem Province (11%), Nyanza Province (9%), Rift Valley Province (8%), Central Province (6%), Nairobi Province (4%) and Coast Province (3.5%). The total economic loss incurred by the country during the 10-year period as a result of condemnation of the infected livers was approximately US$2.6 million. The total annual economic losses during this period ranged from approximately US$0.2-0.3 million. The highest total economic losses for the 10-year period were recorded in Western Province (US$0.8 million) and Central Province (US$0.7 million). A total of 1584 cattle originating from five provinces of Kenya were slaughtered at Dagoretti slaughterhouse over a period of two months of which 147 (9.3%) were infected with liver flukes. All the liver flukes obtained from the infected livers were identified as F. gigantica. It is concluded that fasciolosis is prevalent in cattle in all provinces of Kenya, that it causes great economic losses as a result of condemnation of infected livers, and that F. gigantica is the main species of liver flukes affecting cattle in Kenya. Local climatic factors, cattle trade, rustling and population numbers, and the presence of the snail intermediate hosts are probably the main factors influencing the incidence of the disease in the various regions of the country.

An evaluation of the relative efficacy of a new formulation of oxytetracycline for the treatment of undifferentiated fever in feedlot calves in western Canada

A field trial was performed under commercial feedlot conditions in western Canada to compare the efficacy of a new formulation of long-acting oxytetracycline (LA 30) to a standard long-acting oxytetracycline formulation (LA 20) and florfenicol (FLOR) for the treatment of undifferentiated fever (UF) in calves that received metaphylactic tilmicosin upon arrival at the feed-lot. Seven hundred and ninety-seven recently weaned, auction market derived, crossbred, beef calves suffering from UF were allocated to 1 of 3 experimental groups as follows: LA 30, which received intramuscular long-acting oxytetracycline (300 mg/mL formulation) at the rate of 30 mg/kg body weight (BW) at the time of allocation; LA 20, which received intramuscular long-acting oxytetracycline (200 mg/mL formulation) at the rate of 20 mg/kg BW at the time of allocation; or FLOR, which received intramuscular florfenicol administered at the rate of 20 mg/kg BW at the time of allocation and again 48 hours later. Two hundred and sixty-six animals were allocated to the LA 30 group, 265 animals were allocated to the LA 20 group, and 266 animals were allocated to the FLOR group. The relative efficacy of the LA 30 group, as compared with the LA 20 and FLOR groups, was assessed by comparing relapse, chronicity, wastage, and mortality rates. The overall mortality (RR = 0.50) rate in the LA 30 group was significantly (P < 0.05) lower than in the LA 20 group. However, the overall chronicity (RR = 2.56) and overall wastage (RR = 6.97) rates of the LA 30 group were significantly (P < 0.05) higher than in the LA 20 group. There were no significant (P > or = 0.05) differences in UF relapse rates or cause specific mortality rates between the LA 30 and LA 20 groups. In the economic analysis, there was an advantage of $28.59 CDN per animal in the LA 30 group compared with the LA 20 group. The overall chronicity (RR = 2.25) and overall wastage (RR = 2.80) rates of the LA 30 group were significantly (P < 0.05) higher than the FLOR group. There were no significant (P > or = 0.05) differences in UF relapse rates, overall mortality rates, or cause specific mortality rates between the LA 30 and FLOR groups. In the economic analysis, there was an advantage of $12.90 CDN per animal in the LA 30 group compared with the FLOR group. In summary, the results of this study indicate that it is more cost-effective to use a new formulation of long-acting oxytetracycline (300 mg/mL formulation administered at a rate of 30 mg/kg BW) than a standard long-acting oxytetracycline formulation (200 mg/mL formulation administered at a rate of 20 mg/kg BW) or florfenicol for the treatment of UF in feedlot calves that have previously received metaphylactic tilmicosin upon arrival at the feedlot.

[Fifteen years of paratuberculosis eradication programs. Experiences from the Lower Saxony Animal Epidemic Finance Office]

15 years of systematic paratuberculosis control programs in Lower Saxony were reported and critically judged. The proposed measures were considered with respect to suitability and enforceability.

The foot and mouth disease (FMD) epidemic in the United Kingdom 2001

The foot and mouth disease epidemic commenced in February 2001 when diseased pigs were identified in an abattoir. The infection had become widespread in sheep in England and Wales before this discovery. It was decided to eradicate the disease by slaughter rather than use vaccine. The virus was a Pan-Asia O strain that caused few lesions in sheep and this made the identification of infected flocks very difficult leading to a long drawn-out epidemic. Over four million animals were slaughtered in 2000 herds and flocks. The last outbreak was in September.

Direct production losses and treatment costs from bovine viral diarrhoea virus, bovine leukosis virus, Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis, and Neospora caninum

Our purpose was to determine direct production losses (milk loss, premature voluntary culling and reduced slaughter value, mortaliy loss, and abortion and reproductive loss) and treatmetn costs (veterinary services, medication cost, and extra farm labour cost) due to four infectious diseases in the maritime provinces of Canada: bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD), enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL), Johne's Disease (JD), and neosporosis. We used a partial-budget model, and incorporated risk and sensitivity analyses to identify the effects of uncertainty on costs. Total annual costs for an average, infected, 50 cow herd were: JD$ 2472; BVD$ 2421; neosporosis $ 2304; EBL$ 806. The stochastic nature of the proportion of infected herds and prevalence of infection within a herd were used to estimate probability distributions for these ex post costs. For all diseases, these distributions were right skewed. A sensitivity analysis showed the largest effect on costs was due to milk yield effects. For example, changing milk production loss from 0 to 5% for BVD increased the costs for the disease by 266%.

Durably controlling bovine hypodermosis

Cattle hypodermosis, due to insect larvae, is widely spread over the northern hemisphere. Very efficient insecticides are available and their use in most countries are done on an individual level but never cover the whole cattle population of a country. Untreated animals remain the reservoir of the disease and annually re-infest the cattle population. The economic effects of this disease on animal production (meat, milk and the leather industry) but also on the general cattle health status, have led many European countries to launch organised control programs. The first example of definitive hypodermosis control goes back one hundred years ago when Danish farmers eradicated hypodermosis from the Danish islands by manual elimination of the warbles. Since then, more and more European countries have considered the feasibility and economic returns of such programs. The various factors which foster these programs are related to (i) biological factors, (parasite cattle specificity, synchronous biological cycles of both species of insects involved), (ii) the development of more and more efficient insecticides used only once a year by systemic application, with high efficiency at very low dosages against the first larval stage of Hypoderma spp., (iii) the development of acute techniques of detection of the disease for the monitoring of hypodermosis free countries and (iv) the durable successful results obtained in more and more European countries. Although the programs were imposed by different partners of the livestock channel production (farmers, dairy industry, leather industry) and have been engaged within the last 50 years in many European countries (Denmark, The Netherlands, Ireland, the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic, Germany, France and Switzerland) common features have emerged among these different eradication programs. They all need a preliminary statement of the economic impact of this pest and the farmers' awareness of the economic returns of such programs. The programs' efficacy depends: (i) on a good knowledge ofthe epidemiology of the parasites, (ii) on the simultaneous implementation of the control program on the whole national cattle population whatever the structure monitoring the treatments (veterinary services, farmers association), (iii) on a national Warble fly legislation making the treatments compulsory and (iv) on an acute epidemiological survey as soon as the status of a hypodermosis free country is reached and the treatments are suspended. The sanitary and financial returns of such programs are a benefit to all the partners of livestock production, to the quality of the environment and to the consumers.

A simulation of Johne's disease control

A dynamic and stochastic simulation model (the "JohneSSim model") was developed to evaluate the economic and epidemiological effects of different strategies for control of paratuberculosis in dairy herds. Animals occupy one of the six defined infection states; the spread of Johne's disease is modeled with five infection routes. Many different dairy farm situations can be simulated. Control strategies that can be simulated are: (1) test-and-cull; (2) calf hygiene management; (3) vaccination and (4) grouping of animals. Losses are caused by: (1) reduced milk production; (2) diagnosis and treatment costs; (3) lower slaughter value of cows and (4) sub-optimal culling. The benefits were calculated as reduction in the losses caused by Johne's disease; the costs of each strategy were calculated on the basis of actual costs of each item; and net present value (NPV) was calculated as benefits minus costs. Herd and prevalence data from The Netherlands and Pennsylvania, USA were used. In both situations, a low true mean prevalence within 20 years could be reached only when all calf management tools were applied. The Dutch control program (PPN) was on average economically attractive (with or without labor costs, the average NPV was Euro 1183 and 12,397, respectively). In Pennsylvania, contract heifer rearing and improved calf hygiene reduced the prevalence effectively and had large economic benefits (US$ 43,917 for 20-year period) if the calves were sent to the heifer facility while very young. Validation with data from 21 infected Dutch dairy farms (as well as face-validation: comparison of the results of the JohneSSim model with experiences of Johne's experts) supported the basic assumptions in the model.

Dairy-cattle health in Gyeongnam, Korea

An animal-health monitoring system in the Gyeongnam area was started in 1997 to develop statistically valid data for use in estimating disease frequencies in dairy cattle, and the associated costs. The objectives of this study were to: (1) describe what was done to implement and maintain the system in Gyeongnam; (2) present selected disease frequencies; (3) discuss the epidemiological consideration of what was done and implications for results obtained. Veterinary medical officers (VMOs), comprising professors and graduate students from Gyeongsang National University, faculty of Gyeongnam Livestock Promotion Institute and clinic veterinarians, served as data collectors. After training on current disease and management problems of dairy cattle, interview techniques, sampling methods and data-collection instruments, the VMOs participated in selection of the sample herds and data gathering. Forty (n=40) of 167 dairy herds were selected randomly using a computer-generated list of random numbers and the VMOs visited farms once in a month for 12 months to collect data about management, disease, inventory, production, preventive treatment, financial and other relevant data. Strict data-quality control devices were used. Specific feed-back was developed for the producers and data collectors. The six disorders found most frequently in cows (from the highest to the lowest) were breeding problems, clinical mastitis, birth problems, gastrointestinal problems, metabolic problems and lameness. In young stock, respiratory, multiple system, breeding and gastrointestinal problems were predominant, whereas in calves, gastrointestinal, respiratory and integumental problems predominated.

Eradication of foot and mouth disease in Japan

An outbreak of foot and mouth disease (FMD) was recorded in Japan in the spring of 2000, the first for ninety-two years. Between 25 March and 11 May, four farms were infected. However, the disease was eradicated without resorting to vaccination, through a campaign of culling, movement control of cloven-hoofed animals in areas surrounding infected premises, and intensive clinical and serological surveillance. Japan regained FMD-free status by the end of September 2000. The authors describe the nature of the outbreaks, the eradication measures implemented, and the clinical and serological surveillance methods used. The possible sources of infection are also examined. Finally, the direct and indirect economic losses are presented.

Gastrointestinal nematodes of cattle in the northeastern US: results of a producer survey

A questionnaire covering management practices and producer perception of the effects of gastrointestinal nematode infections was sent to dairy and beef producers in the northeastern US. The mailing list was derived from membership in grazing groups and attendance at grazing events. A final total of 474 responses were suitable for analyses. These responses covered 14 states, but for the purpose of analysis were broken into five groups: New England (NE), Vermont (VT), New York (NY), Pennsylvania (PA), and south and west (S and W) of Pennsylvania. Two-thirds of the responses were from dairy producers. The average number of animals for the farms was 50 cows, 27 heifers, and 20 calves. The average acreage used for grazing was 70 acres, and about two-thirds of the responses used rotational grazing for at least the cows. About one-half of the rotational grazers had been practicing rotational grazing for more than 5 years. Most rotational programs for cows involved a daily rotation, but the rotational interval for other age groups was longer. There was a difference of about 2 months (5.25-7.27) in the length of the grazing season as one moved from New England to south and west of Pennsylvania. Parasite control practices varied greatly by location and animal class. Most producers used anthelmintics one to two times per year, but 10-30% of responses said they did not deworm their cattle. The most common time to deworm was in the spring, and the second most common time was the fall. Between 10 and 20% of respondents reported deworming as a response to decreased productivity or body condition. The use of anthelmintics increased as the location moved from New England to south and west of Pennsylvania. Producer perception of parasite effects was closely related to their anthelmintic use, and also increased as the location moved to the south, and is most likely the result of the increased length of the grazing season. Of producers who ascribed estimated a cost of the parasite, the majority estimated this cost to be between US$ 5 and 20 per animal per year.

An economic model to calculate farm-specific losses due to bovine respiratory disease in dairy heifers

This paper describes a personal-computer-based model estimating the economic losses associated with clinical bovine respiratory disease in replacement heifers raised on individual dairy farms. The model is based on the partial-budgeting technique, and calculates the losses for two types of the disease separately: calf pneumonia and a seasonal outbreak. Model input includes farm-specific data such as the incidence of bovine respiratory disease, prices, and effects of the disease on the heifers' productivity. The input database was linked directly with the economic model. For all input parameters, default values used are available to the user and can be modified easily. Losses considered by the model include treatment expenditures and costs associated with increased mortality, increased premature culling, reduced growth, reduced fertility and reduced milk production in first lactation. Uncertainty is taken into account for parameters related to disease incidence, mortality and culling.Basic calculations for a typical Dutch dairy farm with 60% of the heifers (<3 months) affected, indicated total annual losses due to pneumonia average 31.2 per heifer present on the farm (range 18.4-57.1). The estimated losses for one seasonal outbreak with heifers up to 15-months old affected were 27.0 per heifer present (range 17.2-43.1). For both BRD types, the model's outcome was most sensitive to the number of heifers affected. Most of the parameters that had a major impact on the total losses were related to treatment or to the effects on the heifers' productivity. The model is user-friendly and flexible, and can be used as an interactive tool by farmers and veterinarians in the (economic) decision-making process regarding on-farm prevention and control of bovine respiratory disease.

Association between exposure to Neospora caninum and milk production in dairy cows

OBJECTIVE

To determine association between exposure to Neospora caninum and milk production in dairy cows.

DESIGN

Prospective observational study.

ANIMALS

565 Holstein cows.

PROCEDURE

Cows were classified as seropositive or seronegative to N. caninum within 7 days after calving by use of a kinetic ELISA. Milk production was compared between seropositive and seronegative cows.

RESULTS

On the basis of 305-day mature equivalent milk production data, seropositive cows produced less milk (2.8 lb/cow per day) than did seronegative cows. In addition, analysis of results throughout the first 300 days of lactation revealed that after adjusting for effects of lactation number, calving season, clinical mastitis, and lameness, milk weight of seropositive cows was 2.5 lb/cow per day less than that of seronegative cows.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Exposure to N. caninum was associated with a 3 to 4% decrease in milk production. A decrease in milk production of 800 lb/cow for a typical 305-day lactation represents a loss of $128/cow.

Evaluation of a systemic antibiotic treatment of toxic puerperal metritis in dairy cows

The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and economic efficiency of a systemic treatment of toxic puerperal metritis in dairy cows with ceftiofur. Cows with abnormal vaginal discharge at a postpartum examination (d 4 to 6 after calving) and a rectal temperature > or = 39.5 degrees C were assigned to three treatment groups. Cows in group 1 (n = 70) received 600 mg of ceftiofur intramuscularly (i.m.) on 3 consecutive days. Cows in group 2 (n = 79) received an intrauterine treatment with antibiotic pills consisting of 2500 mg of ampicillin and 2500 mg of cloxacillin and an additional 6000 mg (i.m.) of ampicillin. This treatment was performed on 3 consecutive days. Cows in group 3 (n = 78) received the same intrauterine treatment as in group 2. In addition, 600 mg of ceftiofur was administered i.m. on 3 consecutive days. Body temperature was recorded daily for 6 d after first treatment. There were no significant differences among the groups regarding clinical efficacy at d 6 after first treatment. The cure rates based on rectal temperatures declining to below 39.5 degrees C on d 6 after treatment were 82.9, 84.8, and 84.6% for groups 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Reproductive performance did not differ significantly between group 1 and groups 2 and 3 for any of the measures tested. A financial analysis with 87 different cost scenarios demonstrated that a systemic treatment of toxic puerperal metritis in cattle with ceftiofur is an effective alternative to the combination of local and systemic treatments.

Benefit-cost analysis of animal identification for disease prevention and control

Individual animal identification is an important consideration for many countries to improve animal traceback systems. The analysis presented by the authors provides a conceptual benefit-cost framework for evaluating the economic usefulness of improved animal identification systems designed to reduce the consequences of foreign animal diseases (FAD). For cattle in situations similar to those found in the United States of America, results show that improved levels of animal identification may provide sufficient economic benefits, in terms of the reduced consequences of FAD, to justify the improvements. In contrast, the results of similar studies in swine show that the economic benefits of the reduced FAD consequences are not sufficient to justify improvements in animal identification systems. Vertically integrated industries, in which animals have only one owner in a closed system from birth to slaughter, may not require individual animal identification for traceback purposes. However, additional benefits, not quantified in this analysis, could contribute to favourable benefit-cost ratios for improved identification in certain sectors of the swine industry.