Decompressive craniectomy in the treatment of post-traumatic intracranial hypertension in children: our philosophy and indications

Decompressive craniotomy (DC) in children is a life-saving procedure for the treatment of refractory intracranial hypertension related to traumatic, ischemic and infectious lesions. Different surgical procedures have been proposed including uni or bilateral hemicraniectomy, bi-frontal, bi-temporal, or bi-parietal craniotomies. DC can avoid the cascade of events related to tissue hypoxia, brain perfusion reduction, hypotension and the evolution of brain edema that can be responsible for brain herniation. The monitoring of intracranial pressure (ICP) is very important to take a decision as well as the value of Trans cranial Doppler (TCD). Repeated TCD in the intensive care unit give important information about the decrease of the cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) and facilitates the decision making. The important question is about how long time we have to wait before to perform the DC. Three conditions can be distinguished: 1) ICP stable and TCD with good parameters: the decision can be postponed; 2) ICP>20 mmHg with good TCD and without clinical signs of deterioration: the decision can be postponed; 3) ICP>20 mmHg with altered CPP and degraded TCD value and clinical signs of brain herniation: the surgical procedure is indicated. The decision of a ventricular drainage can also be discussed but in cases of slit ventricles it is preferable to realize a DC to avoid the problems of multiple taps without finding the ventricular system. In some very specific situations, DC has to be contraindicated. The first one is a prolonged cardiopulmonary arrest with a no-flow longer than 15 minutes and irreversible lesions on the TCD or on the CT-scan. The second most common situation is a patient with GCS of 3 on admission associated with bilaterally fixed dilated pupils. In this case TCD is very useful to document the decrease or the absence of diastolic flux that indicates a very poor cerebral perfusion. In case of severe polytraumatism with multiorgan failure, especially in very severe hemorrhagic shock with incontrollable coagulopathy, the realization of DC is definitely hazardous with y a high risk of cardiac arrest during the surgical procedure. The decision to realize a hemicraniectomy or a bi-frontal craniotomy is related to the presence or not of associated traumatic lesions as hemorrhagic contusions or a sub-dural or extradural hematoma. In cases of diffuse cerebral edema the bi-frontal bone flap is indicated. In all cases a closure of the dura mater with a large dural patch has to be performed avoiding compression of the nervous system. Our results showed a mortality rate of 18%. Eighty percent of the survivors have a good quality of life but only 43% in a scholar age could attend a normal program. Patients treated with DC need a long follow-up and an important rehabilitation program to improve their quality of life. Our report shows that DC in children is effective to control the post-traumatic intracranial hypertension but a long follow-up is recommended to access the sequels and quality of life of these patients.

The value of intraoperative intracranial pressure monitoring for predicting re-operation using salvage decompressive craniectomy after craniotomy in patients with traumatic mass lesions

BACKGROUND

The risk factors of predicting the need for postoperative decompressive craniectomy due to intracranial hypertension after primary craniotomy remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the value of intraoperative intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring in predicting re-operation using salvage decompressive craniectomy (SDC).

METHODS

From January 2008 to October 2014, we retrospectively reviewed 284 patients with severe traumatic brain injury (STBI) who underwent craniotomy for mass lesion evacuation without intraoperative brain swelling. Intraoperative ICP was documented at the time of initial craniotomy and then again after the dura was sutured. SDC was used when postoperative ICP was continually higher than 25 mmHg for 1 h without a downward trend. Univariate and multivariate analyses were applied to both initial demographic and radiographic features to identify risk factors of SDC requirement.

RESULTS

Of 284, 41 (14.4%) patients who underwent SDC had a higher Initial ICP than those who didn't (38.1 ± 9.2 vs. 29.3 ± 8.1 mmHg, P < 0.001), but there was no difference in ICP after the dura was sutured. The factors which have significant effects on SDC are higher initial ICP [odds ratio (OR): 1.100, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.052-1.151, P < 0.001], older age (OR: 1.039, 95% CI: 1.002-1.077, P = 0.039), combined lesions (OR: 3.329, 95% CI: 1.199-9.244, P = 0.021) and early hypotension (OR: 2.524, 95% CI: 1.107-5.756, P = 0.028). The area under the curve of multivariate regression model was 0.771.

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of re-operation using SDC after craniotomy was 14.4%. The independent risk factors of SDC requirement are initial ICP, age, early hypotension and combined lesions.

Aberrant facial flushing following monobloc fronto-facial distraction

BACKGROUND

Patients with syndromic forms of craniosynostosis may experience functional problems such as raised intracranial pressure, proptosis, obstructive sleep apnoea and failure to thrive. The monobloc fronto-facial advancement with osteogenic distraction is increasingly used to correct these functional problems in one procedure as well as improve appearance. The authors report the phenomenon of post operative aberrant facial flushing - an unusual and previously unreported complication of the procedure.

METHODS

The case notes of 80 consecutive patients undergoing fronto-facial advancement by distraction using the rigid external distraction device (RED) were reviewed for features of aberrant facial flushing.

RESULTS

Four out of eighty individuals developed facial flushing after monobloc fronto-facial distraction using the rigid external distractor (RED) frame. All were female with Crouzon or Pfeiffer syndromes causing the severe functional problems for which they underwent the surgery. They were aged 6-8 years. Following removal of the frame, they developed intermittent but severe facial flushing. The flushing spontaneously settled in three patients after up to four years but persists in the other child seven years after her surgery.

CONCLUSION

Aberrant facial flushing is a rare but significant complication of monobloc fronto-facial surgery. It occurred in 4 of our 80 (5%) patients. The skull base osteotomies essential for the procedure are made anterior to the pterygopalatine ganglion and it is our contention that damage from these was responsible for a neuropraxia of its efferent nerve branches. A review of the autonomic control of the facial vascular system suggests that the phenomenon is due to an unequal process of recovery that leaves the cutaneous vasodilating parasympathetic or beta-adrenergic innervation relatively unopposed - a situation that persists until with time a normal balance of autonomic input is achieved.

Outcomes of decompressive craniectomy in patients after traumatic brain injury

OBJECTIVE

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can result in cerebral oedema and vascular changes resulting in an increase in intracranial pressure (ICP), which can lead to further secondary damage. Decompressive craniectomy (DC) is a surgical option in the management of ICP. We aimed to investigate outcomes of DC after TBI.

DESIGN

We performed a retrospective audit of 57 adult patients (aged > 15 years) who underwent DC after TBI, at the Royal Melbourne Hospital from 1 January 2005 to 30 June 2011. Our functional outcome measure was the Extended Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOSE).

RESULTS

Patients had a median age of 30 years (range, 17- 73 years). The hospital mortality rate was 47% (27 patients). A higher postoperative median ICP was the most significant predictor of hospital mortality (OR, 1.1; 95% CI, 1-1.3). There was a mean decrease of 7.7mmHg in ICP between the mean preoperative and postoperative ICP values (95% CI, - 10.5 to - 5.0mmHg). There was a mean decrease of 3.5mmHg in the mean cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) from preoperative to postoperative CPP values (95% CI, - 6.2 to - 0.8mmHg). At the 6-month follow-up, a poor outcome (GOSE score, 1-4) was seen in 39 patients (68%), while a good outcome (GOSE score, 5- 8) was noted in 15 patients (26%). A high APACHE II score on admission was the most significant predictor of a worse GOSE score at 6 months (OR, 1.3; 95% CI, 1.1-1.5). Analysis of the APACHE II and IMPACT scores as models for predicting mortality at 6 months showed an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.792 and 0.805, respectively, and for predicting poor outcome at 6 months, showed an AUC of 0.862 and 0.883, respectively.

CONCLUSION

DC decreased ICP postoperatively. The IMPACT and APACHE II scores are good models for prediction of death and poor outcome at 6 months.

Treatment of Secondary Tonsillar Herniation by Lumboperitoneal Shunt Revision

Background:

Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH) is a condition that usually affects young, obese women. Management is aimed at controlling symptoms of increased intracranial pressure (ICP) and prevention of visual failure due to papilledema. A common surgical treatment for IIH is the insertion of a lumboperitoneal shunt (LP shunt). Secondary symptomatic tonsillar herniation is an uncommon side effect following lumbar cerebrospinal fluid diversion.

Methods:

We present two cases of symptomatic secondary tonsillar herniation, one associated with a syrinx, in patients with IIH following valved LP shunting. Treatment options for this side effect may include transplanting the shunt to the ventricular system or decompression of the foramen magnum.

Results:

In our cases we elected to alter the construct of the LP shunt by inserting a programmable valve which led to clinical and radiological reversal of the tonsillar herniation as well as a dramatic reduction in an associated syrinx.

Conclusions:

When faced with LP shunt induced symptomatic secondary tonsillar herniation, consideration may be given to altering LP shunt dynamics, prior to inserting a ventricular catheter into normal sized ventricles or decompressing the posterior fossa.

Relevance of intracranial hypertension control in the management of Cryptococcus neoformans meningitis related to AIDS

PURPOSE

To evaluate the relationship between intracranial hyperpressure (HICP) and mortality in patients with cryptococcal meningitis related to AIDS (CMRA).

METHODS

This was an observational retrospective study. Patients were treated according to the Infectious Diseases Society of America recommendations during the evaluation period (days 0, 3, 5 and after hospitalization). High intracranial pressure (HICP) was defined as ICP values of C250 mm H20. The correlation between HICP and mortality at each of the three time points considered was investigated. Statistical analysis on the descriptive parameters and on the probability of a "death" event (odds ratio, OR) at each of those three time points was performed using the statistical software program Epidata.

RESULTS

Eighty patients were included in this study, of whom 53 (66.25 %) were male. The average age of the patients was 37.5 ± 8.1 (range 22–55) years. The median CD4?lymphocyte cell count was 35 (range 0–367) cells/ml. Among the entire patient cohort, 53 patients had a favorable outcome, and the mortality rate was 33.75 %. At baseline (day 0), 57 subjects (71.5 %) presented HICP, and these patients had a higher mortality rate than those with a normal ICP, but the difference did not reach statistical significance[OR 1.65, 95 % confidence interval (CI) 0.56–4.84]. On day 3, 41 of the patients presented HICP, and HICP at this timepoint was significantly associated with an increased risk of mortality (OR 4.35, 95 % CI 1.56–12.09). On day 5, 35(43.5 %) patients presented HICP, and HCIP at this time point was also significantly associated with higher mortality (OR 7.23, 95 % CI 2.53–20.14).

CONCLUSION

The results of this study confirm an association between HICP and mortality in patients with CMRA and indicate that the control of ICP during the first 5 days of hospitalization is more important than managing HICP only at baseline.

Intraoperative blood loss during decompressive craniectomy for intractable intracranial hypertension after severe traumatic brain injury in children

PURPOSE

There are no data available on the risk of intraoperative bleeding during decompressive craniectomy (DC) after traumatic brain injury (TBI) in children. The objectives of this study were to assess the risk of intraoperative bleeding during DC for intractable intracranial hypertension after TBI, to identify potential factors associated with the risk of bleeding during DC, and to assess the impact of DC on systemic and cerebral hemodynamics and on coagulation.

METHODS

Twelve children were identified as having undergone DC after TBI from April 2009 to June 2013 in our center. Subjects were allocated into two groups according to the percentage of blood loss (IBL) during the intraoperative period (<or ≥50 % of the estimated blood volume (EBV)).

RESULTS

The median IBL during DC was 49 [17-349] % of the EBV. Children with an IBL ≥ 50 % of EBV had higher preoperative intracranial pressure (ICP) (p = 0.03) and international normalized ratio (INR) (p = 0.02) than those with an IBL < 50 % of EBV. DC induced significant decreases in ICP (p = 0.0005), mean arterial pressure (p = 0.01), and a significant increase in norepinephrine flow rate (p = 0.04) between the immediate pre- and postoperative periods.

CONCLUSIONS

DC allows a significant decrease in ICP after severe pediatric TBI but is a surgical procedure at a high risk of bleeding. High ICP and INR during the immediate preoperative period are the main factors associated with increased IBL during DC. Further studies are needed to confirm our results and to assess the impact of the amount of IBL on the postoperative survival and functional outcome.

[Intracranial and cerebral perfusion pressure in neurosurgical patients during anaesthesia with xenon]

Despite difficulties in providing xenon anaesthesia, xenon still seems to be attractive for neurosurgical procedures. But data upon its effect on intracranial (ICP) and cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) remains controversial. We monitored ICP and CPP in patients with or without intracranial hypertension during xenon inhalation in different concentrations. Our results suggest that caution should be used while inhaling xenon in high anaesthetic concentration in patients wiith known intracranial hypertension. We also address new possibilities of xenon use, e.g., for sedation in neurosurgery. The study was supported by Russian Fund for Fundamental Research, grant number 13-04-01640.

Autologous bone flap cranioplasty following decompressive craniectomy is combined with a high complication rate in pediatric traumatic brain injury patients

OBJECTIVE

Decompressive craniectomy (DC) is a last treatment option of refractory intracranial hypertension in traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients. Replacement of the autologous bone flap is the preferred method to cover the cranial defect after brain swelling has subsided. Long term outcomes and complications after replacement of the autologous bone flap in pediatric patients were studied in comparison to young, healthy adults.

METHODS

Medical records of 27 pediatric patients who underwent DC and subsequent replacement of the bone flap between 1998 and 2011 were reviewed retrospectively. Patients were divided into two age groups (group 1: 18 children < 15 years; group 2:9 adolescents 15-18 years). For comparative reasons, a young adult control group of 39 patients between 18 and 30 years was additionally evaluated.

RESULTS

With 81.8 % resorption of the bone flap, this was the major complication in young children. In up to 54.4 % of patients, a surgical revision of the osteolytic bone flap became necessary. However, in some pediatric patients, the osteolysis resolved spontaneously and further operations were not required. Probable enabling factors for bone flap resorption were young age (0-7 years), size of craniectomy, permanent shunt placement, and extent of dural opening/duraplasty. Other complications were bone flap infections, loosening of the re-inserted bone flap, and postoperative hematomas.

CONCLUSION

There is an unacceptably high complication rate after reimplantation of the autologous bone following DC in pediatric TBI patients, especially in young children up to seven years of age. Artificial or synthetic cranioplasties may be considered as alternatives to initial bone flap reimplantation in the growing child. Despite the fact that DC is an effective treatment in TBI with persistent intracranial hypertension, it is important to realize that DC is not only combined with replacement of the autologous bone flap but also with a high rate of additional complications especially in pediatric patients.

[Intubation using the Pentax-AWS Airwayscope with an infant-size Intlock in a patient with increased intracranial pressure due to acute hydrocephalus]

We report our experience with the Pentax-AWS Airwayscope with an infant-size Intlock (AWS-I) in a patient with increased intracranial pressure due to acute hydrocephalus. A 12-month-old female infant with increased intracranial pressure due to acute hydrocephalus was scheduled to undergo emergent ventriculoperitoneal shunting under general anesthesia. She had a clonic convulsion and was sedated with midazolam. As her head was enlarged, head-tilting was difficult. Tracheal intubation while preventing an intracranial pressure increase was needed. After induction of general anesthesia with thiamylal and fentanyl the AWS-I was inserted to obtain a laryngoscopic view without excessive force. Under AWS observation, tracheal intubation was uneventful, and no vital sign change was observed.

Cranioplasty with autologous cryopreserved bone after decompressive craniectomy: complications and risk factors for developing surgical site infection

Background

Renewed interest has developed in decompressive craniectomy, and improved survival is shown when this treatment is used after malignant middle cerebral artery infarction. The aim of this study was to investigate the frequency and possible risk factors for developing surgical site infection (SSI) after delayed cranioplasty using autologous, cryopreserved bone.

Methods

This retrospective study included 74 consecutive patients treated with decompressive craniectomy during the time period May 1998 to October 2010 for various non-traumatic conditions causing increased intracranial pressure due to brain swelling. Complications were registered and patient data was analyzed in a search for predictive factors.

Results

Fifty out of the 74 patients (67.6 %) survived and underwent delayed cranioplasty. Of these, 47 were eligible for analysis. Six patients (12.8 %) developed SSI following the replacement of autologous cryopreserved bone, whereas bone resorption occurred in two patients (4.3 %). No factors predicted a statistically significant rate of SSI, however, prolonged procedural time and cardiovascular comorbidity tended to increase the risk of SSI.

Conclusions

SSI and bone flap resorption are the most frequent complications associated with the reimplantation of autologous cryopreserved bone after decompressive craniectomy. Prolonged procedural time and cardiovascular comorbidity tend to increase the risk of SSI.

[Emergency cesarean section and craniectomy in a patient with rupture of a cerebral arteriovenous malformation]

The intracerebral hemorrhage in pregnancy is a rare event, but can have catastrophic consequences for both mother and fetus. The management of non-ruptured arteriovenous malformations in pregnancy is not free of controversy in the current literature, as there is the possibility of spontaneous bleeding and becoming a true emergency. We report the case of a pregnant patient of 35 weeks with a diagnosis of a cerebral arteriovenous malformation, who developed a sudden onset of headache, generalized tonic-clonic seizures, loss of consciousness, and hemiparesis with radiological images of an intracranial hematoma with a mass effect, and signs of herniation. The multidisciplinary management is discussed, emphasizing perioperative cesarean approach plus craniotomy and drainage of the hematoma, and subsequent management in intensive care, and definitive management by neuroradiology, with a successful outcome.

Shunt dependency syndrome after cystoperitoneal shunting of arachnoid cysts

PURPOSE

The goal of this study was to investigate the mechanisms, diagnosis, and treatment of shunt dependency syndrome in patients with temporal lobe arachnoid cysts who were initially treated with cystoperitoneal (CP) shunting.

METHODS

Thirteen patients with temporal lobe arachnoid cysts who had initially been treated with CP shunt placement and had developed shunt dependency syndrome were treated by the senior author at Tiantan Hospital between April 2010 and January 2012. The clinical manifestations, neuroimaging findings, intracranial pressure (ICP) data, treatment methods, and therapeutic results were reviewed retrospectively.

RESULTS

The study included ten males and three females. The mean age at the time of development of shunt dependency syndrome was 12.3 years (range 5.5-24 years). In most patients, neuroimaging findings showed a collapsed cyst (the cyst appeared almost unchanged in only one patient) and normal or small ventricles (only one patient had enlarged ventricles). Three patients underwent simple replacement of the shunt, four underwent ventriculoperitoneal shunt placement, and the other six underwent lumboperitoneal shunt placement. All patients experienced resolution of their symptoms postoperatively. The mean duration of follow-up was 20 months.

CONCLUSIONS

Shunt dependency syndrome is a rare but serious complication of shunting an arachnoid cyst. This condition is similar to the slit ventricle syndrome, but also has some differences. ICP monitoring may confirm the diagnosis when there are no significant radiological findings. Achievement of a shunt-free state might be the ultimate goal for all shunted patients.

Surgical treatment of sagittal synostosis by extended strip craniectomy: cranial index, nasofrontal angle, reoperation rate, and a review of the literature

BACKGROUND

Sagittal synostosis is the most common non-syndromic single suture craniosynostosis. Different techniques of surgical correction, including extended strip craniectomy (ESC), have been used to treat this condition. The aim of this study is to evaluate radiologic changes and rate of symptomatic restenosis after ESC in a large group of patients less than 12 months of age with non-syndromic sagittal synostosis.

METHODS

A retrospective study of patients from 1990 to 2012 was performed comparing cranial index (CI) and nasofrontal angle (NFA) before and after surgical correction by ESC. Also, the frequency of subsequent reoperations for symptomatic restricted head growth was determined.

RESULTS

A total of 238 patients underwent ESC. Follow-up information was available for 182 patients. The average age at the time of the operation was 4.5 months and the mean duration of follow-up was 49.6 months. The average post procedure radiologic follow-up (22 patients) was 40.7 months.

CONCLUSIONS

The mean CI increased from 0.68 to 0.75 (p < 0.001) after ESC. Also, mean NFA increased from 127 to 133° (p < 0.001). Five patients (2.7%) required a second operation due to symptomatic cranial growth restriction. Reoperation occurred at an average of 26.5 months after the initial procedure. The most common symptom reported was headache. ESC is effective in treating non-syndromic sagittal synostosis. It significantly improved NFA without the need for direct frontal bone resection or frontal orbital osteotomy and significantly increased CI without adjunctive helmet treatment. Patients should be followed for at least 5 years after surgical correction as symptomatic restenosis, although rare, can occur.

Good clinical outcome after combined endovascular and neurosurgical treatment of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis

INTRODUCTION

A subgroup of patients suffering from cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST) has a poor prognosis with standard anticoagulant treatment alone. Over a five-year period, we treated nine patients with aggressive endovascular therapy and neurosurgical/neurointensive treatment. In this study, the effect of this treatment is evaluated.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A retrospective analysis of electronic patient files and data was performed.

RESULTS

All treated patients had partial or complete recanalization of the affected sinus after endovascular treatment. In three patients, a decompressive craniectomy was performed due to elevated intracranial pressure. Eight patients out of nine achieved a good outcome at follow-up (modified Rankin Scale 0-2). One patient died. No patients experienced recurrence of CVST.

CONCLUSION

Aggressive combined endovascular and neurosurgical treatment of patients with severe CVST is associated with a good clinical outcome in the cases in which the patient's clinical condition deteriorates despite standard anticoagulation therapy.

FUNDING

not relevant.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

not relevant.

Intraoperative pre- and post-craniofacial reconstruction intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring in children with craniosynostosis

INTRODUCTION

One of the goals of cranial vault expansion performed in patients with craniosynostosis (CS) is to reduce the harmful effects associated with elevated intracranial pressure (ICP). Until now, clear guidelines on when cranial vault expansion should take place have not been established except in unacceptable cosmetic deformities.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This paper illustrates the potential benefit of ICP monitoring in determining the time of surgery. The ICP of six patients (ranging from 7 months to 8 years) was measured before and after surgery. For the first time, we regulated end-tidal carbon dioxide, the position and movements, the level of sedation and the monitoring site of our patients under anesthesia to report accurate ICP readings.

RESULTS

The mean pre- and postoperative ICPs were 14.7 and 4.2 mmHg, respectively. Pressure sensor was placed through a burr hole under general anesthesia and remained through all stages of recording. Though ICP monitoring has been reported before, the physiological fluctuations of ICP and patient's condition affected results. Under our ICP monitoring protocol, the six-patient study represents a suggestion to standardize ICP measurements under certain conditions in order to improve the reproducibility of ICP monitoring and therefore establish the need for optimal timing of cranial vault expansion in pediatrics.

CONCLUSION

Although we cannot clearly define the indications and establish normal pediatric ICP values from the result of this study because of the small number of cases and some other limitations, this is a new approach to define ICP increase as a potential indication for surgery in CS.

Prior CSF shunting increases the risk of endoscopic third ventriculostomy failure in the treatment of obstructive hydrocephalus in adults

INTRODUCTION

Endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV) is accepted as an effective treatment for obstructive hydrocephalus (OHC); however, its benefit in patients previously treated with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) shunting remains unclear. The value of concurrent ETV and ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunting in patients with frequent shunt failure remains unstudied.

METHODS

Outcomes were compared between OHC patients receiving ETV as initial CSF diversion treatment (n= 19) versus OHC patients receiving ETV for shunt failure (n= 11) by log-rank analysis and Kaplan-Meier plots of recurrence-free periods. To determine if the performance of ETV with concurrent shunt revision decreased the incidence of catastrophic treatment failure in patients experiencing frequent and emergent shunt failures (n = 8), the time to treatment failure after ETV and shunt revision was compared with the mean duration of their previous CSF shunts.

RESULTS

ETV after shunt failure was 2.5-fold more likely to fail [risk ratio (RR): 2.48, p<0.05] versus ETV as initial CSF diversion treatment for OHC. Following ETV as initial CSF diversion treatment, 17 patients (89%) experienced immediate improvement and 65% remained recurrence-free at year 2. Following ETV after shunt failure, 16 patients (71%) experienced immediate improvement, but only 25% remained recurrence-free at year 2. In patients with a history of multiple shunt revisions and complications, concurrent use of ETV and VP shunt did not significantly decrease treatment failure. However, the incidence of catastrophic shunt failure requiring acute intervention decreased (43% versus 17%).

CONCLUSION

In our experience with ETV for OHC, prior CSF shunting in patients with obstructive hydrocephalus was associated with the decreased time to treatment failure following conversion to ETV. ETV may be less effective for the treatment of OHC in previously shunted patients. ETV combined with concurrent CSF shunting may be an important strategy to prevent catastrophic treatment failure in OHC patients with a history of multiple shunt revisions and complications.

Cryptococcoma of the brain in an immunocompetent man

Cryptococcosis is a common opportunistic systemic disease in immunocompromised patients. Pulmonary or brain cryptococcosis is the most common clinical presentation. Immunocompetent patients can also be affected, especially in tropical and subtropical zones where the life cycle of the causal agent, Cryptococcus gattii, is completed. We present a previously healthy man with progressive intracranial hypertension and a right paraventricular mass on CT scan and MRI. Cryptococcus gattii yeasts were isolated from the cerebrospinal fluid. A ventriculoperitoneal shunt was placed and the patient was treated with amphotericin B, fluconazole and dexamethasone. The patient died due to severe intracranial hypertension.

[Aseptic bone flap osteonecrosis following cranioplasty after decompressive cranietomy]

This case report discusses a case of aseptic osteonecrosis in a cranioplasty bone flap after decompressive craniectomy, which is a known, but rare complication after autologous cranioplasty. We suggest that the pathophysiology of cranial bone flap necrosis may have a similar pathophysiology to free flap necrosis/failure. The key suggested problem causing the osteonecrosis is vessel thrombosis within the smaller vessels of the bone flap due to the prothrombotic effects of the factors released during drilling of the bone flap. Suspicious local findings like wound dehiscence or fluid leakage should lead to a head computed tomography in order to discuss a prophylactic artificial second cranioplasty if necessary.

[Rocuronium bromide as component of general anaesthesia in patients with traumatic cerebral compression]

The choice of myorelaxation agent for rapid sequence tracheal intubation for surgical cerebral decompression is a less studied question in neuroanaesthesiology. 32 patients with cerebral trauma (GCS<8) were involved in the study. Influence of succinylcholine and rocuronium bromide on cerebral circulation, intracranial pressure, cerebral perfusion pressure and systemic haemodynamics was assessed. Rocuronium bromide in dose 0.6 mg/kg provides good conditions for tracheal intubation in 40-60 seconds and does not influence on studied parameters. Rocuronium bromide is a drug of choice for general anaesthesia in patients with traumatic cerebral compression.

[Cerebrovascular accident with haemorrhagic transformation in a patient on antiplatelet treatment subjected to surgery of a hypophyseal macroadenoma]

The case is presented of a 51 year-old woman, proposed for endoscopic endonasal transsphenoidal resection of a hypophyseal macroadenoma diagnosed in the context of a stroke suffered 10 weeks before the date of the surgery. During this time, she had been treated with antiplatelet drugs, which were withdrawn 5 days before the surgery. The surgical procedure was performed without any incidents. On the second day after the surgery, the patient had an ischaemic infarction of the left cerebellar hemisphere, with signs of hydrocephaly and a posterior haemorrhagic transformation, with brain death 5 days after the operation. There are no definitive guidelines on the use of antiplatelet drugs in the perioperative period of neurosurgery. Also, there is no agreement as regards the waiting time between a cerebrovascular event and surgery, it appears that between 4 and 12 weeks would be the most advisable. The importance of an individual assessment of each patient before surgery is emphasised, as well as a review of the antiplatelet management of the patient with a risk of thrombosis in the context of neurosurgery, and their possible postoperative complications.

The IMPACT prognosis calculator used in patients with severe traumatic brain injury treated with an ICP-targeted therapy

BACKGROUND

The prognosis of severe traumatic brain injury (sTBI) is important. The International Mission on Prognosis in Traumatic Brain Injury (IMPACT) study group has developed a prediction calculator for the outcome of patients with sTBI, and this has been made available on the World Wide Web. We have studied the use of the IMPACT calculator on sTBI patients treated with an ICP-targeted therapy based on the Lund concept.

METHOD

The individual clinical data of patients in a prospective sTBI protocol-driven trial of the treatment of sTBI using the Lund concept were entered into the prognosis calculator, and the individual prognosis for each patient was calculated and compared with the actual outcome at 6 months.

FINDINGS

The use of the IMPACT calculator led to an overestimation of mortality and of an unfavourable outcome. Compared with the IMPACT database, the absolute risk reduction (ARR) for mortality was 13.6 %. There is a statistically significant probability for the prediction of mortality and unfavourable outcome. A ROC curve analysis shows an area under the curve (AUC) in the Core model for mortality of 0.744 and of unfavourable outcome of 0.731, in the Extended model of 0.751 and 0.721 respectively, and in the Lab model of 0.779 and 0.810 respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The IMPACT prognosis calculator should be used with caution for the prediction of outcome for an individual patient with sTBI treated with an ICP-targeted therapy based on the Lund concept. We conclude that we have to initiate treatment in all patients with blunt sTBI and an initial cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP)≥10 mmHg [corrected]. It seems that the outcome in sTBI patients treated in this fashion is better than would have been expected from the IMPACT prognosis.