An ethnopharmacological survey of plants used for wound healing in Dogonland, Mali, West Africa

Traditional medicine, being a significant element in the cultural patrimony, still remains the main recourse for a large majority of people in Dogonland, Mali, for treating various diseases and ailments. This paper reports an ethnopharmacological study in Dogonland with the aim to identify medicinal plants used in the treatment of wounds. Information obtained from traditional healers revealed 73 plant species being used as wound healing remedies, according to the definitions of wounds given by the healers themselves. The plants, belonging to 34 plant families, are used as first aids, in the washing of wounds, extraction of pus, as coagulants, as well as for infected wounds. The most frequently used preparations are decoctions and powdered plant material.

Ethnopharmacognostic survey on the natural ingredients used in folk cosmetics, cosmeceuticals and remedies for healing skin diseases in the inland Marches, Central-Eastern Italy

An ethnopharmaceutical study focused on domestic cosmetics, cosmeceuticals, and remedies to heal skin diseases traditionally used in the inland part of the Marches region (Central-Eastern Italy) has been conducted. At present, traditional knowledge concerning home-made phytocosmetics is represented by both the remnants of an orally transmitted folk heritage and also by new forms of knowledge, sometimes coming from popular phytotherapeutical books and the mass media (out of the scope of this survey), but also as a result of recent migration trends from Eastern Europe. We recorded approximately 135 cosmetic or cosmeceutical preparations prepared from more than 70 botanical species and a very few animal or mineral ingredients. Among the recorded preparations, developing a clear distinction amongst cosmetics, cosmeceuticals and pharmaceuticals for skin diseases is very problematic, confirming that in folk knowledge systems medicinal products for healing skin diseases and cosmetics have often been perceived as two poles of a continuum. Many of the quoted species represented well-known medicinal plants of the European phytotherapy, although we also recorded a few unusual plant taxa, which are briefly discussed under the perspective of their eventual phytochemical and/or phytopharmacological potentialities. Exotic drugs or precious essences, even native of the Mediterranean, were not quoted as ingredients for preparing perfumes and fragrances by the interviewees of the present study, thus indicating that popular cosmetic practices in rural Central Italy have taken a much separated path away from the cosmetic "know-how" of the aristocracy and high bourgeois classes of the last centuries.

Phyllanthus piscatorum, ethnopharmacological studies on a women's medicinal plant of the Yanomamï Amerindians

The shrub Phyllanthus piscatorum Kunth (Euphorbiaceae) is cultivated by various ethnic groups of the Amazon because of its piscicidal properties. During ethnobotanical fieldwork among the Yanomamï Amerindians in Venezuela we observed that Phyllanthus piscatorum was exclusively cultivated and used by the women. Aerial parts of this herbaceous shrub are employed as fish poison and medicine to treat wounds and fungal infections. In addition, the leaves are used as tobacco substitute. Ethnobotanical data regarding the context of the use of this plant are presented. To validate ethnobotanical information related to its medicinal indications, antimicrobial, and antiprotozoal properties of water, methanol (MeOH) and dichloromethane (DCM) extracts were studied. No activity against Gram-positive bacterial strains but significant activity against the fungi Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus flavus and the yeast Candida albicans were found. All extracts showed weak in vitro activity against Plasmodium falciparum and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. The extracts were further investigated for cytotoxic effects in an in vitro test system with leukemia Jurkat T, HeLa, and human peripheral mononuclear blood cells (PBMCs). During the first 48 h the extracts did not exhibit any cytotoxicity. After 72 h the DCM extract potently inhibited viability of HeLa cells. Although in several communities along the upper Orinoco the cultivation and use of Phyllanthus piscatorum is being lost because of the ongoing acculturation, the traditional medicinal use of Phyllanthus piscatorum might provide an effective and cheap remedy against dermatological diseases linked with Candida albicans infections.

Pharmacopoeia in a shamanistic society: the Izoceño-Guaraní (Bolivian Chaco)

We present the results of an ethnopharmacological research within a Bolivian lowland ethnic group from the dry Chaco, the izoceño-guaraní. Izoceño-guaraní people belong to the extended Chiriguano group. They are actually organised in independent communities, settled down in south-east Bolivia. Struggling very soon for their rights, landowners of their territory, izoceño-guaraní appear to be well organised and maintain a still vivid culture. Medicine is in the hands of Paye who are recognised as specialists in their own group. Ethnopharmacological research leads us to collect approximately over 306 species, 189 of them having medicinal uses. We present here an overview of the izoceño-guaraní ethnomedicine and pharmacopoeia, based on vegetal and animal products.

Isolation, partial characterisation and immunomodulating activities of polysaccharides from Vernonia kotschyana Sch. Bip. ex Walp

The roots from Vernonia kotschyana Sch. Bip. ex Walp. (Baccharoides adoensis var. kotschyana (Sch. Bip. ex Walp.) M.A. Isawumi, G.El-Ghazaly & B. Nordenstam) (Asteraceae) are used in Malian folk medicine for the treatment of gastritis, gastro duodenal ulcers, as an aid to ameliorate digestion and as a wound healing remedy. Since a common feature among these conditions is related to immune responses, immunomodulating activities of fractions isolated from both the 50 degrees C and the 100 degrees C water extracts from Vernonia kotschyana were investigated in this study. The active principles were identified as acidic polysaccharide fractions, containing pectic arabinogalactan type II structures, which showed both complement fixing ability and T-cell independent induction of B-cell proliferation in vitro. Some activity was also observed on macrophages. The present study may provide additional support for the popular use of this plant to improve intestinal health.

Ethnopharmacological studies of antimicrobial remedies in the south of Brazil

This study reports the antimicrobial evaluation of the species most commonly used in Rio Grande do Sul (RS), the southernmost state of Brazil, for treating conditions likely to be associated with microorganisms. A four-stage process of documentation and evaluation was conducted: (a). review of RS ethnobotanical studies; (b). analysis of traditional uses; (c). literature survey on phytochemical and pharmacological data; (d). microbiological screening of selected plants. From the 149 species initially identified, 49 were cited as being used for microbial associated conditions in at least two other regions in RS, and 18 were further selected for screening. The crude methanol extract of these 18 plants were evaluated against seven microorganisms using the diffusion agar test. Extracts from Chaptalia nutans, Cordia monosperma, Echinodorus grandiflorus, Eugenia uniflora, Leonurus sibiricus, Luehea divaricata, Malva sylvestris, Ocotea odorifera, Parapiptadenia rigida, Pluchea sagittalis, Psidium cattleyanum and Senna neglecta were active against at least one microorganism. Although preliminary, these results are useful for rationalizing the use of medicinal plants in established systems of traditional medicine in primary health care.

Ethnopharmacological investigations on Thalictrum plants in China

Thalictrum (Ranunculaceae) is an extremely abundant medicinal plant source. Due to their marked ethnopharmacological usages in folk medicine of China and the large number of potentially active chemical constituents, they may be a rich source for new chemicals for drug R&D. Here, an investigation on traditional functions and folk therapeutic uses of Thalictrum plants from China, as well as their main chemical constituents, was undertaken. It showed that 43 Thalictrum plants have long been used as folk medicine to treat many diseases in different races of China. In addition, the correlation between folk therapeutic effects and chemical constituents, and the modem pharmacological activities, are discussed as well as the prospect of isolation and development of new drugs from this genus of plants.

Ethnobotanical inventory of medicinal plants used in the Bustillo Province of the Potosi Department, Bolivia

A survey of medicinal plants used by rural communities in the Bustillo Province of the Potosi Department in Bolivia is reported in this article. Fifty-six plant species belonging to 24 families and 46 different genera were included. Their botanical and vernacular names, plant part used, popular medicinal use, forms of preparation and applications of the herbal remedies are given.

Antinociceptive effect and toxicological study of the aqueous bark extract of Barringtonia racemosa on rats

Barringtonia racemosa Linn. (Family Lecythidaceae) possess several bioactivities and is used in traditional medicine of Sri Lanka, but its analgesic potential has not been investigated so far. The aim of this study was therefore to examine the antinociceptive potential of an aqueous bark extract (500, 750, 1000 or 1500 mg/kg) of B. racemosa in male rats using three models of nociception (tail flick, hot plate and formalin tests). The results showed that the extract has antinociceptive activity (when evaluated in hot plate and formalin test but not in tail flick test) without producing unwanted side effects or toxicity. Further, the extract did not alter fertility, gestational length, peri- and neonatal development and appears to be non-teratogenic. The antinociceptive effect was mediated mainly via opioid mechanisms. Such inhibition of pain could arise from phenolic and steroidal constituents as was shown to be present in the extract.

Treatment of malaria in Ethiopian folk medicine

Key informant interviews of herbalists were conducted to document the traditional management of malaria in Ethiopia. The perceptions of the cause and symptoms of malaria, the use of plants, their preparation and administration were recorded. Interviews were performed in rural Butajira and Addis Ababa (the main city). The result showed that 33 (75%) of the interviewed healers treat malaria using herbal drugs. Sixteen plants were reported to have been used of which eight were used as a single remedy and the rest as composite remedies with other plants. The ethnopharmacological data generated in this study on antimalarial plants is useful for further evaluations of the traditional claims of antimalarial plants in Ethiopia.

Medicinal plants of the Popoluca, México: organoleptic properties as indigenous selection criteria

The taste and smell of the environment are important to humans in everyday life and are of particular relevance for the selection of medicinal versus non-medicinal plant species. In a 16-months study with the Popoluca of southern Veracruz (Mexico), we focused on the indigenous selection criteria for medicinal plants. We provide evidence for a highly significant association between organoleptic properties of plants and the use of these species as medicine. Additionally, the doctrine of signature is an essential mnemonic aid, which facilitates remembering the use assigned to the plant. From the Popoluca point of view, it is essential to find substitutes or alternative treatments when a certain species is not at hand. We show that organoleptic properties and the doctrine of signature are excellent guides for selecting or memorising such medicinals.

Pharmaceutical therapy in midwifery practice: a culturally competent approach

The profession of midwifery can be part of the solution in America's quest for a culturally sensitive and competent health care system. Midwives who are familiar with a variety of health-related cultural beliefs and practice culturally sensitive inquiry, particularly when using pharmaceutical therapies, can effectively understand and respond to the cultural complexities that impact a client's health. This article describes needed cultural competencies, reviews a variety of health-related cultural beliefs, and relates how these beliefs impact the use and acceptability of pharmaceutical therapies. Specific examples related to culturally sensitive inquiry are discussed along with recommendations.

[Natural toxins in inter- and intraspecies interaction of human being (elements of ethnotoxinology)]

The author considers the application of natural toxins as arrow poison by Homo sapiens from ancient time till today for hunting and ethnic wars on the example of natives of Asia, Africa, South America and Oceania. Geographic isolation was important determining the spectrum of natural toxin sources and the methods of their application. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of arrow poisons effects are considered in biogeographical context: aconitin and strychnin in Asia, diamphotoxin in Africa, indole alcaloids of plants and steroid alcaloids of amphibian in Central and South America, palytoxin in Oceania islands. High efficiency and selective effect of natural toxins allow to use them as molecular markers in current studies of functional membrane architecture and cellular structures. Great differences in pace of civilization development leads to the co-existence at the beginning of the XXI century ethnic groups that use natural toxins as arrow poison and human beings that use the same toxins in fundamental and applied investigations within international scientific society.

Ethnophysiology and herbal treatments of intestinal worms in Dominica, West Indies

In rural Dominican ethnophysiology worms reside in a human organ called the 'worm bag'. Unchecked, worms can cause illness by growing in size and number, spreading out of the worm bag and into other organs. In this study of 'bush medicine', we use a measure of cognitive salience in free-listing tasks, which reveals five plants commonly used to treat intestinal worms. These were Ambrosia hispida (Asteraceae), Aristolochia trilobata (Aristlochiaceae), Chenopodium ambrosioides (Chenopodiaceae), Portulaca oleracea (Portulacaceae), and Artemisia absinthium (Asteraceae). Bioactive compounds appear to be present in all of these plants. The cognitive salience of these plant remedies coupled with evidence of biochemical properties suggest that they provide efficacious treatments for controlling intestinal parasite loads.

[Frontier fields of plant chemical ecology in the 21st century]

It has focused on chemical interactions between plant and other organisms, which mediated by secondary plant metabolites in recent years. Induced chemical defense in plant, plant chemical communication, relationships between secondary plant metabolites and evolution, chemical relationships between plant and human and chemical ecology of marine plant are the frontier fields needed attention of plant chemical ecology in the 21st century. Progress in these frontier fields of plant chemical ecology will play an important role in sustainable development, particular in increasing agricultural production and effective control of pest, disease and weed under ecological security in the 21st century.

Medicinal plants popularly used in the Brazilian Tropical Atlantic Forest

A survey of medicinal plants used by rural and urban inhabitants of the three cities of the Tropical Atlantic Forest, Region of Vale do Ribeira, State of São Paulo, Brazil was performed by means of 200 interviews with medicinal plant users and extractors and, traditional healers. One hundred fourteen herbal remedies were recorded and the following information reported: Latin, vernacular and English names, plant part used, forms of preparation and application of the herbal remedies, medicinal or food uses, areas of plant collection, economic importance (when available) and other data.

Ageratum conyzoides L. (Asteraceae)

Ageratum conyzoides L., is an annual herb with a long history of traditional medicinal uses in many countries in the world, especially in the tropical and subtropical regions. A wide range of chemical compounds including alkaloids, flavonoids, chromenes, benzofurans and terpenoids have been isolated from this species. Extracts and metabolites from this plant have been found to possess pharmacological and insecticidal activities. The comprehensive account of the chemical constituents and the biological activities are presented in this review such that the potential use of this plant either in pharmaceutics or as an agricultural resource can be evaluated.

Yucatec Mayan medicinal plants: evaluation based on indigenous uses

As part of an ethnopharmacological field study 48 medicinal plants were evaluated using several biological assays with the goal to obtain information on the pharmacological effects of these plants, which may be of direct relevance to the indigenous uses. Three species used to treat gastrointestinal disorders showed remarkable activity against Helicobacter pylori. One of them showed activity against Giardia duodenalis. Cytotoxic effects against KB cells were found for six species. In the group of plants used for dermatological conditions several species were active against gram-positive bacteria and Candida albicans. Two plant species of this group were found to be active in an Nuclear Factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) assay measuring inhibition of this pro-inflammatory transcription factor. A species of the Solanaceae, applied in cases of pain and fever, showed a weak activity against Plasmodium falciparum. One species traditionally used for diabetes exhibited antihyperglycemic activity. None of the six species from the group of 'women's medicine' showed relevant affinity to the D(2) dopamine receptor. Based on this evaluation, plants with strong activities should be further investigated phytochemically and pharmacologically to identify active fractions and compounds.

Ethnopharmacology of the Popoluca, Mexico: an evaluation

Medicinal plants are an essential part of indigenous pharmaceutical systems. We studied the medicinal plants used by the Popoluca of the Sierra Santa Marta (Eastern Mexico). This study is part of a series on the ethnopharmacology of various Macro-Mayan groups. During 16 months of ethnobotanical fieldwork, 614 taxa used medicinally and 4488 individual use-reports were documented. The data are analysed using the concept of the "healers' consensus" in order to identify culturally important medicinal plants. The medicinal uses of the plants were grouped into 13 illness categories. The responses for each species were summarized for each of the categories and were ordered by frequency of mention. The most frequently recorded medicinal plants of the Popoluca are Hamelia patens, used to stop bleeding from wounds, and Byrsonima crassifolia, used against diarrhoea. The high-ranked medicinal species were assessed pharmacognostically using published phytochemical and pharmacological data. Popoluca medicinal uses were fairly consistent with published data on active ingredients for those plants for which such data exist. However, data is still lacking for many other species. Toxicological studies are particularly scarce. This study will be used as a basis for subsequent studies on the pharmacology and phytochemistry of medicinal plant species.

Antiprotozoal activities of Colombian plants

In our search for therapeutical alternatives for antiprotozoal chemotherapy, we collected a selection of 44 plants from western Colombia upon ethnopharmacological and chemotaxonomic considerations. Polar and apolar extracts of these species were examined for antimalarial activity using in vitro tests with two clones of Plasmodium falciparum. Leishmanicidal and trypanocidal activity were determined in vitro using promastigote and amastigote forms of several strains of Leishmania sp. and epimastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi. Among the selected plants, the 15 following species showed good or very good antiprotozoal activity in vitro: Aspidosperma megalocarpon, Campnosperma panamense, Conobea scoparioides, Guarea polymera, Guarea guidonia, Guatteria amplifolia, Huberodendron patinoi, Hygrophila guianensis, Jacaranda caucana, Marila laxiflora, Otoba novogranatensis, Otoba parviflora, Protium amplium, Swinglea glutinosa and Tabernaemontana obliqua. Cytotoxicity was assessed in U-937 cells and the ratio of cytotoxicity to antiprotozoal activity was determined for the active extracts. Ten extracts from eight species showed selectivity indexes > or = 10. Among the extracts that showed leishmanicidal activity, the methylene chloride extract of leaves from C. scoparioides showed a selectivity index in the same range that the one of the Glucantime control. Several of the active leishmanicidal plants are traditionally used against leishmaniasis by the population of the concerned area.

Ethnopharmacology and bioinformatic combination for leads discovery: application to phospholipase A(2) inhibitors

A program combining ethnopharmacology and bioinformatic approaches has successfully been applied on anti-inflammatory activity. (i) An ethnobotanical study allowed the identification of several plants associated with putative anti-inflammatory properties as potential leads. (ii) On the other hand, it is well known that phospholipase A(2) is a target implicated in the pro-inflammatory process. Thus, (iii) some selected plant extracts were experimentally tested on phospholipase A(2). Finally, (iv) these experimental results combined with bioinformatic tools, such as database exploitation and molecular modeling, allowed to suggest that one compound, betulin and its oxidative form betulinic acid, might be responsible of the anti-PLA(2) activity. This suggestion was confirmed experimentally.