Tracing the trajectory of skill learning with a very large sample of online game players

In the present study, we analyzed data from a very large sample (N = 854,064) of players of an online game involving rapid perception, decision making, and motor responding. Use of game data allowed us to connect, for the first time, rich details of training history with measures of performance from participants engaged for a sustained amount of time in effortful practice. We showed that lawful relations exist between practice amount and subsequent performance, and between practice spacing and subsequent performance. Our methodology allowed an in situ confirmation of results long established in the experimental literature on skill acquisition. Additionally, we showed that greater initial variation in performance is linked to higher subsequent performance, a result we link to the exploration/exploitation trade-off from the computational framework of reinforcement learning. We discuss the benefits and opportunities of behavioral data sets with very large sample sizes and suggest that this approach could be particularly fecund for studies of skill acquisition.

Examining the relationship between relative age, competition level, and dropout rates in male youth ice-hockey players

The relative age effect suggests that athletes born in the first two quartiles of a given selection year experience a selection advantage and therefore a greater opportunity for success. We describe two studies examining the relationship between relative age, competition level, and dropout rates of Ontario Minor Hockey Association male ice-hockey players from ages 10 to 15 years (n = 14 325). In Study 1, dropout was highest among players born in quartiles three and four [χ(2) (3) = 16.32, P < 0.05; w = 0.06], while Study 2 found dropped out players to have less movement between competition levels compared to retained players. This study confirms a relationship between relative age and dropout from ice-hockey and adds further depth to our understanding of this persistent phenomenon.

A comparison of reinforcement schedules to increase independent responding in individuals with intellectual disabilities

We compared the effects of varying reinforcement schedules on independent responding with 3 individuals with intellectual disabilities. Independent responding was always reinforced, and responding after a vocal response was either (a) always reinforced, (b) never reinforced, or (c) reinforced on a fixed-ratio 3 schedule. Results showed that for 2 of the 3 participants, independent responding was higher when responding after the vocal prompt was never reinforced. These data suggest that altering the reinforcement schedule to favor independent responding may lead to increased independent responding.

Watch me if you can: imagery ability moderates observational learning effectiveness

Recent research has revealed similarities in brain activity during observational learning and motor execution. However, whilst action develops visual, motor and afferent representations during acquisition, action-observation has been proposed to only develop visual-spatial learning via visual representation. In addition, it has been suggested that the vividness of visual representations are determined by imagery ability. Thus, the purpose of the current investigation was to explore the possible moderating role of imagery ability in the effectiveness of observational learning. Participants (n = 40) were assessed on their imagery ability via the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire-2 (VMIQ-2) and then assigned to one of four groups; high imagery ability and observational learning (HIA-OL), low imagery ability and observational learning (LIA-OL), high imagery ability control (HIA-C) and low imagery ability control (LIA-C). Following group allocation all participants performed a pre-test consisting of five actual practice trials of a novel gymnastics routine. The HIA-OL and LIA-OL groups then participated in a 14 day observational learning intervention whilst the HIA-C and LIA-C groups acted as controls. Following this, participants performed a post test, which was identical in nature to the pre-test, before finally completing the VMIQ-2 again. Performance on both the pre-test and post test was evaluated by two qualified gymnastics judges. Results revealed that gymnastics performance increased from pre-test to post test for both the HIA-OL and LIA-OL groups. However, this effect was greater in the HIA-OL group suggesting that the relationship between observational learning and successful imitation performance is moderated by imagery ability.

Can noninvasive brain stimulation enhance function in the ageing brain?

Advancing age is associated with cognitive and motor performance deficits and a reduced capacity for plasticity. Zimerman and colleagues (Zimerman M, Nitsch M, Giraux P, Gerloff C, Cohen LG, Hummel FC. Ann Neurol 73: 10-15, 2013) have recently shown that noninvasive brain stimulation can enhance behavioral improvements following training on a motor sequence task in older adults. The work is of high clinical importance given the rapidly growing ageing population and the accompanying costs to health systems globally.

Application of stereoscopic visualization on surgical skill acquisition in novices

OBJECTIVE

The use of stereoscopic imaging can provide additional depth cues that may increase trainee performance on surgical tasks, but it has yet to be evaluated using a validated surgical skill system. This study examines the influence of monoscopic vs stereoscopic visualization in novice trainees performing the McGill Inanimate System for Training and Evaluation of Laparoscopic Skill (MISTELS) tasks, a validated laparoscopic skill-evaluation system, predicting a difference in performance based on visualization modality.

DESIGN

A total of 31 first- and second-year medical students at the University of Western Ontario were selected, each performed the MISTELS battery of tasks (circle cutting, peg transfer, ligated loop Placement, intracorporeal knot tying, and extracorporeal knot tying) using either monoscopic or stereoscopic visualization displays. Performance was evaluated in accordance with the MISTELS protocol. Participant visual spatial ability and manual dexterity skills were also analyzed and compared with performance. p values less than 0.05 were considered significant.

RESULTS

For ligated loop placement, extracorporeal knot tying, and intracorporeal knot tying, no significant difference was found between monoscopic and stereoscopic visualization on task performance (p > 0.05). Monoscopic visualization was shown to produce significantly better performance in the peg transfer task alone (p = 0.001). Qualitatively, 57.1% of participants believed their performance was aided by stereoscopic visualization and 68.8% believed that future learners would benefit from its implementation into surgical education. Most participants rated the peg transfer task to be the least difficult task (60%) and rated the intracorporeal knot-tying task to be the most difficult (65.9%).

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that the intrinsic difficulty of the MISTELS tasks may exceed a novice user's skill. No benefit with additional 3-dimensional cues in naïve surgical trainees was found. Additional visual cues in stereoscopic visualization may only serve to increase cognitive load and potentially decrease skill acquisition and learning.

Skill acquisition with text-entry interfaces: particularly older users benefit from minimized information-processing demands

Operating information technology challenges older users if it requires executive control, which generally declines with age. Especially for novel and occasional tasks, cognitive demands can be high. We demonstrate how interface design can reduce cognitive demands by studying skill acquisition with the destination entry interfaces of two customary route guidance systems. Young, middle-aged, and older adults performed manual destination entry either with a system operated with multiple buttons in a dialogue encompassing spelling and list selection, or with a system operated by a single rotary encoder, in which an intelligent speller constrained destination entry to a single line of action. Each participant performed 100 training trials. A retention test after at least 10 weeks encompassed 20 trials. The same task was performed faster, more accurately, and produced much less age-related performance differences especially at the beginning of training if interface design reduced demand for executive control, perceptual processing, and motor control.

Offensive sequences in youth soccer: effects of experience and small-sided games

The present study aimed to analyze the interaction and main effects of deliberate practice experience and small-sided game format (3 vs. 3 and 6 vs. 6 plus goalkeepers) on the offensive performance of young soccer players. Twenty-eight U-15 male players were divided into 2 groups according to their deliberate practice experience in soccer (i.e., years of experience in federation soccer): Non-Experienced (age: 12.84 ± 0.63 years) and Experienced (age: 12.91 ± 0.59 years; experience: 3.93 ± 1.00 years). The experimental protocol consisted of 3 independent sessions separated by one-week intervals. In each session both groups performed each small-sided game during 10 minutes interspersed with 5 minutes of passive recovery. To characterize the recorded offensive sequences we used the Offensive Sequences Characterization System, which includes performance indicators previous applied in other studies. No interaction effects on the offensive performance were found between both factors. Non-parametric MANOVA revealed that the factor “experience level” had a significant effect (p<0.05) on performance indicators that characterize the development of offensive sequences, especially in 6 vs. 6 + GKs. While experienced players produced longer offensive sequences with greater ball circulation between them, the non-experienced participants performed faster offensive sequences with a predominance of individual actions. Furthermore, significant differences were observed (p<0.05) in the development and finalization of offensive sequences within each group, when comparing small-sided game formats. Evidence supports that small-sided games can serve several purposes as specific means of training. However, the manipulation of game format should always consider the players’ individual constraints.

Examining neural correlates of skill acquisition in a complex videogame training program

Acquisition of complex skills is a universal feature of human behavior that has been conceptualized as a process that starts with intense resource dependency, requires effortful cognitive control, and ends in relative automaticity on the multi-faceted task. The present study examined the effects of different theoretically based training strategies on cortical recruitment during acquisition of complex video game skills. Seventy-five participants were recruited and assigned to one of three training groups: (1) Fixed Emphasis Training (FET), in which participants practiced the game, (2) Hybrid Variable-Priority Training (HVT), in which participants practiced using a combination of part-task training and variable priority training, or (3) a Control group that received limited game play. After 30 h of training, game data indicated a significant advantage for the two training groups relative to the control group. The HVT group demonstrated enhanced benefits of training, as indexed by an improvement in overall game score and a reduction in cortical recruitment post-training. Specifically, while both groups demonstrated a significant reduction of activation in attentional control areas, namely the right middle frontal gyrus, right superior frontal gyrus, and the ventral medial prefrontal cortex, participants in the control group continued to engage these areas post-training, suggesting a sustained reliance on attentional regions during challenging task demands. The HVT group showed a further reduction in neural resources post-training compared to the FET group in these cognitive control regions, along with reduced activation in the motor and sensory cortices and the posteromedial cortex. Findings suggest that training, specifically one that emphasizes cognitive flexibility can reduce the attentional demands of a complex cognitive task, along with reduced reliance on the motor network.

Perspectives on learning styles in motor and sport skills

We present the perspective that while coaches and instructors commonly adapt learning styles to maximize training outcomes, there has been little to no empirical support for the efficacy of this practice. Learning styles is a learner’s preferred mode (e.g., visual, verbal) of taking in and processing new information. Although it is a relevant topic for the learning of motor and sport skills, few studies have used an appropriate methodology to test the effectiveness of learning style-based instruction. We highlight the need for a learning style assessment tool specific to motor skills and call for a test of the learning style hypothesis, the claim that learners will benefit from instruction that is tailored to their individual learning style. To this end, we suggest methodological guidelines.

State space analysis of timing: exploiting task redundancy to reduce sensitivity to timing

Timing is central to many coordinated actions, and the temporal accuracy of central nervous system commands presents an important limit to skilled performance. Using target-oriented throwing in a virtual environment as an example task, this study presents a novel analysis that quantifies contributions of timing accuracy and shaping of hand trajectories to performance. Task analysis reveals that the result of a throw is fully determined by the projectile position and velocity at release; zero error can be achieved by a manifold of position and velocity combinations (solution manifold). Four predictions were tested. 1) Performers learn to release the projectile closer to the optimal moment for a given arm trajectory, achieving timing accuracy levels similar to those reported in other timing tasks (~10 ms). 2) Performers develop a hand trajectory that follows the solution manifold such that zero error can be achieved without perfect timing. 3) Skilled performers exploit both routes to improvement more than unskilled performers. 4) Long-term improvement in skilled performance relies on continued optimization of the arm trajectory as timing limits are reached. Average and skilled subjects practiced for 6 and 15 days, respectively. In 6 days, both timing and trajectory alignment improved for all subjects, and skilled subjects showed an advantage in timing. With extended practice, performance continued to improve due to continued shaping of the trajectory, whereas timing accuracy reached an asymptote at 9 ms. We conclude that skilled subjects first maximize timing accuracy and then optimize trajectory shaping to compensate for intrinsic limitations of timing accuracy.

Regional differences in brain volume predict the acquisition of skill in a complex real-time strategy videogame

Previous studies have found that differences in brain volume among older adults predict performance in laboratory tasks of executive control, memory, and motor learning. In the present study we asked whether regional differences in brain volume as assessed by the application of a voxel-based morphometry technique on high resolution MRI would also be useful in predicting the acquisition of skill in complex tasks, such as strategy-based video games. Twenty older adults were trained for over 20 h to play Rise of Nations, a complex real-time strategy game. These adults showed substantial improvements over the training period in game performance. MRI scans obtained prior to training revealed that the volume of a number of brain regions, which have been previously associated with subsets of the trained skills, predicted a substantial amount of variance in learning on the complex game. Thus, regional differences in brain volume can predict learning in complex tasks that entail the use of a variety of perceptual, cognitive and motor processes.

Eye movements and strategy shift in skill acquisition: adult age differences

OBJECTIVES

The current article explores age differences in skill acquisition. We validated strategy self-reports, evaluated whether eye movements may be automatic as well as information seeking, and considered the contribution of eye movements to age differences in overall performance.

METHODS

Young and older adults performed the noun-pair lookup (NP) task. With practice, pairs (e.g., IVY-BIRD) in a lookup table can be verified by memory rather than by visual search. Trials used (1) standard stimuli, (2) memory tests without the lookup table, or (3) memory tests with a table filled with uninformative placeholders.

RESULTS

For standard trials, reported scanning was associated with more table gazes, relative to reported retrieval. The lookup table was occasionally fixated during reported retrieval, particularly by older adults, but the table target pair was no more likely to be gazed than other table pairs. For memory probes, older adults also gazed the lookup table when filled with placeholders, indicating that eye movements can represent attentional capture rather than information seeking.

DISCUSSION

Strategy self-reports in the NP task can be considered valid measures of strategy use. However, unnecessary automatic eye movements that appear to influence older adults' NP task performance cannot be identified by strategy reports alone.

Adaptability to perturbation as a predictor of future falls: a preliminary prospective study

BACKGROUND

Falls often result from failed responses to unexpected, externally applied perturbations. Whether performance-based, reaction-based, and/or adaptation-based assessment tools can predict future fails among community-dwelling older adults is unknown.

PURPOSE

This preliminary prospective study examined the relationship between older adults' future fall risk and their reactive responses and adaptations to repeated slips, and their functional status.

METHODS

Thirteen community-dwelling adults (>64 years) were exposed initially to a session of repeated slips. About 30 months later, self-reported falls experience data were collected for the preceding year from these participants. Slip outcome (fall, loss of balance, or recovery), slip score (weighted sum of slip outcomes), Timed Up and Go scores, and future fall incidence were recorded.

RESULTS

Four participants who reported at least 1 fall had significantly higher slip scores than the rest. In contrast, neither failed recovery on the first slip nor a higher TUG score predicted greater odds of future falls.

CONCLUSION

Community-dwelling older adults' adaptability to externally imposed perturbations may reveal their future fall risk.

A comparison of peer video modeling and self video modeling to teach textual responses in children with autism

Peer video modeling was compared to self video modeling to teach 3 children with autism to respond appropriately to (i.e., identify or label) novel letters. A combination multiple baseline and multielement design was used to compare the two procedures. Results showed that all 3 participants met the mastery criterion in the self-modeling condition, whereas only 1 of the participants met the mastery criterion in the peer-modeling condition. In addition, the participant who met the mastery criterion in both conditions reached the criterion more quickly in the self-modeling condition. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for teaching new skills to children with autism.

Paths to expertise in portuguese national team athletes

The purpose of this study was to identify the quantity and type of sporting activities undertaken by expert team sport athletes in the earlier stages of the long- term athlete development. Experts in roller-hockey (n = 19), volleyball (n = 14), soccer (n = 42) and basketball (n = 37) provided detailed information about the sporting activities they undertook throughout their careers. Results showed considerable variation between and within sports; however, generally, athletes began participating in sports between 6 and 10 years of age. The pattern of participation in specific and non-specific (team, individual and combat) sports for each stage of involvement demonstrated an increase in the number of activities participated in until early adolescence. Our results suggest that involvement in multiple sports during early stages of development is an alternative to early specialization and add further evidence of the complexity of skill acquisition in sport. Key pointsAlthough most athletes began sport participation between 6 and 10 years of age, there was significant variation across groups suggesting considerable flexibility in the pathways to expertise.The path to expertise in volleyball was clearly distinct from the paths of basketball, soccer and roller-hockey.There is a considerable involvement in sports other than the athlete's primary sport, suggesting early specialization is not required for these sports.The pattern of participation in specific and non-specific sports for each stage of involvement demonstrated an increase in the number of activities participated in until early adolescence.

The effects of differential reinforcement of unprompted responding on the skill acquisition of children with autism

The recommendation to reserve the most potent reinforcers for unprompted responses during acquisition programming has little published empirical support for its purported benefits (e.g., rapid acquisition, decreased errors, and decreased prompt dependence). The purpose of the current investigation was to compare the delivery of high-quality reinforcers exclusively following unprompted responses (differential reinforcement) with the delivery of high-quality reinforcers following both prompted and unprompted responses (nondifferential reinforcement) on the skill acquisition of 2 children with autism. Results indicated that both were effective teaching procedures, although the differential reinforcement procedure was more reliable in producing skill acquisition. These preliminary findings suggest that the differential reinforcement of unprompted responses may be the most appropriate default approach to teaching children with autism.

Evaluating progress in behavioral programs for children with autism spectrum disorders via continuous and discontinuous measurement

We evaluated the influence of two different frequencies of data collection on skill acquisition and maintenance within behavioral treatment programs for children with autism spectrum disorders. Six children were taught multiple skills in up to four different behavioral programs. Half of the skills were measured continuously (i.e., trial by trial), and the other half were measured discontinuously (i.e., first trial only). When differences were detected, quicker acquisition was typically associated with discontinuous measurement, and stronger maintenance was typically associated with continuous measurement.