Monsters and the case of L. Joseph: André Feil's thesis on the origin of the Klippel-Feil syndrome and a social transformation of medicine

André Feil (1884–1955) was a French physician best recognized for his description, coauthored with Maurice Klippel, of patients with congenital fusion of cervical vertebrae, a condition currently known as Klippel-Feil syndrome. However, little is known about his background aside from the fact that he was a student of Klippel and a physician who took a keen interest in describing congenital anomalies. Despite the relative lack of information on Feil, his contributions to the fields of spinal disease and teratology extended far beyond science to play an integral role in changing the misguided perception shrouding patients with disfigurements, defects, deformities, and so-called monstrous births. In particular, Feil's 1919 medical school thesis on cervical abnormalities was a critical publication in defying long-held theory and opinion that human “monstrosities,” anomalies, developmental abnormalities, and altered congenital physicality were a consequence of sinful behavior or a reversion to a primitive state. Indeed, his thesis on a spinal deformity centering on his patient, L. Joseph, was at the vanguard for a new view of a patient as nothing less than fully human, no matter his or her physicality or appearance.

History of the current understanding and management of tethered spinal cord

An understanding of the underlying pathophysiology of tethered cord syndrome (TCS) and modern management strategies have only developed within the past few decades. Current understanding of this entity first began with the understanding and management of spina bifida; this later led to the gradual recognition of spina bifida occulta and the symptoms associated with tethering of the filum terminale. In the 17th century, Dutch anatomists provided the first descriptions and initiated surgical management efforts for spina bifida. In the 19th century, the term “spina bifida occulta” was coined and various presentations of spinal dysraphism were appreciated. The association of urinary, cutaneous, and skeletal abnormalities with spinal dysraphism was recognized in the 20th century. Early in the 20th century, some physicians began to suspect that traction on the conus medullaris caused myelodysplasia-related symptoms and that prophylactic surgical management could prevent the occurrence of clinical manifestations. It was not, however, until later in the 20th century that the term “tethered spinal cord” and the modern management of TCS were introduced. This gradual advancement in understanding at a time before the development of modern imaging modalities illustrates how, over the centuries, anatomists, pathologists, neurologists, and surgeons used clinical examination, a high level of suspicion, and interest in the subtle and overt clinical appearances of spinal dysraphism and TCS to advance understanding of pathophysiology, clinical appearance, and treatment of this entity. With the availability of modern imaging, spinal dysraphism can now be diagnosed and treated as early as the intrauterine stage.

Chen Jingrun, China's famous mathematician: devastated by brain injuries on the doorstep to solving a fundamental mathematical puzzle

Chen Jingrun (1933–1996), perhaps the most prodigious mathematician of his time, focused on the field of analytical number theory. His work on Waring's problem, Legendre's conjecture, and Goldbach's conjecture led to progress in analytical number theory in the form of “Chen's Theorem,” which he published in 1966 and 1973. His early life was ravaged by the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Cultural Revolution. On the verge of solving Goldbach's conjecture in 1984, Chen was struck by a bicyclist while also bicycling and suffered severe brain trauma. During his hospitalization, he was also found to have Parkinson's disease. Chen suffered another serious brain concussion after a fall only a few months after recovering from the bicycle crash. With significant deficits, he remained hospitalized for several years without making progress while receiving modern Western medical therapies. In 1988 traditional Chinese medicine experts were called in to assist with his treatment. After a year of acupuncture and oxygen therapy, Chen could control his basic bowel and bladder functions, he could walk slowly, and his swallowing and speech improved. When Chen was unable to produce complex work or finish his final work on Goldbach's conjecture, his mathematical pursuits were taken up vigorously by his dedicated students. He was able to publish Youth Math, a mathematics book that became an inspiration in Chinese education. Although he died in 1996 at the age of 63 after surviving brutal political repression, being deprived of neurological function at the very peak of his genius, and having to be supported by his wife, Chen ironically became a symbol of dedication, perseverance, and motivation to his students and associates, to Chinese youth, to a nation, and to mathematicians and scientists worldwide.

Hyaluronic acid scaffold has a neuroprotective effect in hemisection spinal cord injury

OBJECTIVE

Spinal cord injury occurs in 2 phases. The initial trauma is followed by inflammation that leads to fibrous scar tissue, glial scarring, and cavity formation. Scarring causes further axon death around and above the injury. A reduction in secondary injury could lead to functional improvement. In this study, hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogels were implanted into the gap formed in the hemisected spinal cord of Sprague-Dawley rats in an attempt to attenuate damage and regenerate tissue.

METHODS

A T-10 hemisection spinal cord injury was created in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats; the rats were assigned to a sham, control (phosphate-buffered saline), or HA hydrogel–treated group. One cohort of 23 animals was followed for 12 weeks and underwent weekly behavioral assessments. At 12 weeks, retrograde tracing was performed by injecting Fluoro-Gold in the left L-2 gray matter. At 14 weeks, the animals were killed. The volume of the lesion and the number of cells labeled from retrograde tracing were calculated. Animals in a separate cohort were killed at 8 or 16 weeks and perfused for immunohistochemical analysis and transmission electron microscopy. Samples were stained using H & E, neurofilament stain (neurons and axons), silver stain (disrupted axons), glial fibrillary acidic protein stain (astrocytes), and Iba1 stain (mononuclear cells).

RESULTS

The lesions were significantly smaller in size and there were more retrograde-labeled cells in the red nuclei of the HA hydrogel–treated rats than in those of the controls; however, the behavioral assessments revealed no differences between the groups. The immunohistochemical analyses revealed decreased fibrous scarring and increased retention of organized intact axonal tissue in the HA hydrogel–treated group. There was a decreased presence of inflammatory cells in the HA hydrogel–treated group. No axonal or neuronal regeneration was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of these experiments show that HA hydrogel had a neuroprotective effect on the spinal cord by decreasing the magnitude of secondary injury after a lacerating spinal cord injury. Although regeneration and behavioral improvement were not observed, the reduction in disorganized scar tissue and the retention of neurons near and above the lesion are important for future regenerative efforts. In addition, this gel would be useful as the base substrate in the development of a more complex scaffold.

Microsurgical anatomy of safe entry zones to the brainstem

OBJECT

The aim of this study was to enhance the planning and use of microsurgical resection techniques for intrinsic brainstem lesions by better defining anatomical safe entry zones.

METHODS

Five cadaveric heads were dissected using 10 surgical approaches per head. Stepwise dissections focused on the actual areas of brainstem surface that were exposed through each approach and an analysis of the structures found, as well as which safe entry zones were accessible via each of the 10 surgical windows.

RESULTS

Thirteen safe entry zones have been reported and validated for approaching lesions in the brainstem, including the anterior mesencephalic zone, lateral mesencephalic sulcus, intercollicular region, peritrigeminal zone, supratrigeminal zone, lateral pontine zone, supracollicularzone, infracollicularzone, median sulcus of the fourth ventricle, anterolateral and posterior median sulci of the medulla, olivary zone, and lateral medullary zone. A discussion of the approaches, anatomy, and limitations of these entry zones is included.

CONCLUSIONS

A detailed understanding of the anatomy, area of exposure, and safe entry zones for each major approach allows for improved surgical planning and dissemination of the techniques required to successfully resect intrinsic brainstem lesions.

Prospective evaluation of the utility of intraoperative confocal laser endomicroscopy in patients with brain neoplasms using fluorescein sodium: experience with 74 cases

OBJECTIVE

This study evaluated the utility, specificity, and sensitivity of intraoperative confocal laser endomicroscopy (CLE) to provide diagnostic information during resection of human brain tumors.

METHODS

CLE imaging was used in the resection of intracranial neoplasms in 74 consecutive patients (31 male; mean age 47.5 years; sequential 10-month study period). Intraoperative in vivo and ex vivo CLE was performed after intravenous injection of fluorescein sodium (FNa). Tissue samples from CLE imaging–matched areas were acquired for comparison with routine histological analysis (frozen and permanent sections). CLE images were classified as diagnostic or nondiagnostic. The specificities and sensitivities of CLE and frozen sections for gliomas and meningiomas were calculated using permanent histological sections as the standard.

RESULTS

CLE images were obtained for each patient. The mean duration of intraoperative CLE system use was 15.7 minutes (range 3–73 minutes). A total of 20,734 CLE images were correlated with 267 biopsy specimens (mean number of images/biopsy location, in vivo 84, ex vivo 70). CLE images were diagnostic for 45.98% in vivo and 52.97% ex vivo specimens. After initiation of CLE, an average of 14 in vivo images and 7 ex vivo images were acquired before identification of a first diagnostic image. CLE specificity and sensitivity were, respectively, 94% and 91% for gliomas and 93% and 97% for meningiomas.

CONCLUSIONS

CLE with FNa provided intraoperative histological information during brain tumor removal. Specificities and sensitivities of CLE for gliomas and meningiomas were comparable to those for frozen sections. These data suggest that CLE could allow the interactive identification of tumor areas, substantially improving intraoperative decisions during the resection of brain tumors.

Carotid Endarterectomy Surgical Simulation Model Using a Bovine Placenta Vessel

BACKGROUND:

Carotid endarterectomy (CEA) is a common, well-developed surgical procedure. Although surgical simulation is gaining in importance for residency training, CEA practice opportunities for surgical residents are limited.

OBJECTIVE:

To describe a new haptic CEA model.

METHODS:

Six bovine placentas were used to create the model. Each placenta provided about 6 large arterial and venous bifurcations. In total, 36 large-vessel bifurcations were dissected and prepared for the CEA simulation. Bovine placenta vessels were arranged to simulate the common carotid artery (CCA), internal carotid artery (ICA), and external carotid artery (ECA). The diameters and wall thicknesses were measured and compared with human CCA, ICA, and ECA parameters.

RESULTS:

All bovine placentas provided vessels suitable for modeling carotid artery bifurcations and CEA training. Mean ± SD diameters of simulated CCAs, ECAs, and ICAs were 11.2 ± 1.8, 4.3 ± 0.5, and 9.8 ± 3.0 mm, respectively, from nondilated veins and 8.7 ± 1.4, 4.4 ± 1.3, and 7.2 ± 1.7 mm, respectively, from nondilated arteries. Mean vessel wall thicknesses were 2.0 ± 0.6 mm for arteries and 1.4 ± 0.5 mm for veins. Placental vessel tissue had dimensions and handling characteristics similar to those of human carotid arteries. The CEA procedure and its subtasks, including vessel-tissue preparation and surgical skills performance, could be reproduced with high fidelity.

CONCLUSION:

A bovine placenta training model for CEA is inexpensive and readily available and closely resembles human carotid arteries. The model can provide a convenient and valuable simulation and practice addition for vascular surgery training.

Midline as a landmark for the position of the superior sagittal sinus on the cranial vault: An anatomical and imaging study

Background:

Craniotomies involving the midline are regular practice in neurosurgery, during which injury to the superior sagittal sinus (SSS), an uncommon yet devastating event, may occur. The midline tends to be the most common landmark used to identify the position of the SSS. In this study we examined the reliability of the midline as a landmark for the SSS.

Methods:

We performed bilateral craniectomies on eight cadaveric heads, preserving the coronal, sagittal, and lambdoid sutures. The width of the SSS and its displacement from midline were measured on the cadaveric specimens and on 105 normal magnetic resonance images (MRIs) of the head at the following locations: halfway between nasion and bregma (NB), bregma (B), halfway between bregma and lambda (BL), lambda (L), and inion (I).

Results:

In all cadaveric specimens, the SSS was partially or totally displaced toward one side of midline, usually to the right. It tended to be closer to midline in the frontal region and more displaced posteriorly. The SSS usually drained into the right-side transverse sinus. The mean width of the SSS was 4.3, 5.9, 6.9, 7.9, and 7.8 mm, and the average displacement from midline was 4.3, 6.3, 5.5, 6.9, and 6.0 mm for NB, B, BL, L, and I, respectively. These measurements were then compared with those obtained from the MRIs.

Conclusion:

The SSS was consistently displaced on either side of midline. Thus, the midline is not reliable for identifying the SSS, and caution should be used within 6–10 mm on either side of midline.

Mathematically modeling the biological properties of gliomas: A review

Although mathematical modeling is a mainstay for industrial and many scientific studies, such approaches have found little application in neurosurgery. However, the fusion of biological studies and applied mathematics is rapidly changing this environment, especially for cancer research. This review focuses on the exciting potential for mathematical models to provide new avenues for studying the growth of gliomas to practical use. In vitro studies are often used to simulate the effects of specific model parameters that would be difficult in a larger-scale model. With regard to glioma invasive properties, metabolic and vascular attributes can be modeled to gain insight into the infiltrative mechanisms that are attributable to the tumor's aggressive behavior. Morphologically, gliomas show different characteristics that may allow their growth stage and invasive properties to be predicted, and models continue to offer insight about how these attributes are manifested visually. Recent studies have attempted to predict the efficacy of certain treatment modalities and exactly how they should be administered relative to each other. Imaging is also a crucial component in simulating clinically relevant tumors and their influence on the surrounding anatomical structures in the brain.

Evaluation of surgical freedom for microscopic and endoscopic transsphenoidal approaches to the sella

BACKGROUND

Microscopic and endoscopic transsphenoidal approaches to the sellar are well established. Surgical freedom is an important skull base principle that can be measured objectively and used to compare approaches.

OBJECTIVE

To compare the surgical freedom of 4 transsphenoidal approaches to the sella turcica to aid in surgical approach selection.

METHODS

Four transsphenoidal approaches to the sella were performed on 8 silicon-injected cadaveric heads. Surgical freedom was determined with stereotactic image guidance using previously established techniques. The results are presented as the area of surgical freedom and angular surgical freedom (angle of attack) in the axial and sagittal planes.

RESULTS

Mean total exposed area surgical freedom for the microscopic sublabial, endoscopic binostril, endoscopic uninostril, and microscopic endonasal approaches were 102 ± 13, 89 ± 6, 81 ± 4, and 69 ± 10 cm2, respectively. The endoscopic binostril approach had the greatest surgical freedom at the pituitary gland and ipsilateral and contralateral internal carotid arteries (25.7 ± 5.4, 28.0 ± 4.0, and 23.0 ± 3.0 cm2) compared with the microscopic sublabial (21.8 ± 3.5, 21.3 ± 2.4, and 19.5 ± 6.3 cm2), microscopic endonasal (14.2 ± 2.7, 14.1 ± 3.2, and 16.3 ± 4.0 cm2), and endoscopic uninostril (19.7 ± 4.8, 22.4 ± 2.3, and 19.5 ± 2.9 cm2) approaches. Axial angle of attack was greatest for the microscopic sublabial approach to the same targets (14.7 ± 1.3°, 11.0 ± 1.5°, and 11.8 ± 1.1°). For the sagittal angle of attack, the endoscopic binostril approach was superior for all 3 targets (16.6 ± 1.7°, 17.2 ± 0.70°, and 15.5 ± 1.2°).

CONCLUSION

Microscopic sublabial and endoscopic binostril approaches provided superior surgical freedom compared with the endonasal microscopic and uninostril endoscopic approaches. This work provides objective baseline values for the quantification and evaluation of future refinements in surgical technique or instrumentation.

Malleable endoscope increases surgical freedom compared with a rigid endoscope in endoscopic endonasal approaches to the parasellar region

BACKGROUND

One challenge when performing endoscopic endonasal approaches is the surgical conflict that occurs between the surgical instruments and endoscope in the crowded nasal corridor. This conflict decreases surgical freedom, increases surgeon frustration, and lengthens the learning curve for trainees.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the impact a malleable endoscope has on surgical freedom for endoscopic approaches to the parasellar region.

METHODS

Uninostril and binostril endoscopic transsphenoidal approaches to the pituitary gland and cavernous carotid arteries were performed on 8 silicon-injected, formalin-fixed cadaveric heads using both rigid and flexible 3-dimensional endoscopes. Surgical freedom to targets in the parasellar region was assessed using an established technique based on image guidance. Results are presented as 3 measurements: area of surgical freedom for a point target, area for the surgical field (cavernous carotids and sella), and angular surgical freedom (angle of attack).

RESULTS

Point target surgical freedom, exposed area surgical freedom, and angle of attack were all significantly greater in approaches using the malleable endoscope compared with the rigid endoscope (P values .06 to <.001), with values varying between 17% and 28%. The improved surgical freedom noted with the malleable endoscope was due to the minimization of instrument-endoscope conflict at the back end (camera) and front end (tip) of the endoscope.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that application of a malleable endoscope to transsphenoidal approaches to the parasellar region decreases instrument-endoscope conflict and improves surgical freedom.

Two bullets to the head and an early winter: fate permits Kutuzov to defeat Napoleon at Moscow

General Mikhail Kutuzov (circa 1745–1813) brilliantly repelled Napoleon’s invasion of Russia. Honored as a national hero and a savior of Russia, Kutuzov has a unique medical story. He was shot in the head twice while fighting the Turks (1774 and 1788) and survived the serious injuries seemingly against all odds. The first bullet “ran through the head from one temple to the other behind both eyes.” The second bullet entered the cheek, destroyed upper teeth, traveled through the head, and exited the occiput. Massot, a French surgeon with the Russian army, wrote after treating Kutuzov’s seemingly two mortal wounds: “It must be believed that fate appoints Kutuzov to something great, because he was still alive after two injuries, a death sentence by all the rules of medical science.” Aided by Massot’s expert surgical technique, Kutuzov lived to become intimately engaged in events that altered world history. His health did, however, suffer significant effects due to the bullet wounds. In 1812, as Napoleon’s Grande Armée approached, Kutuzov realized he could not confront Napoleon and he strategically retreated from Moscow, submitting the French to the harsh winter and Russian cavalry. Napoleon’s devastated army retreated to Paris, and Kutuzov became the personification of Russian spirit and character. Kutuzov’s survival of two nearly mortal head wounds created the legends, additional mystery, and drama surrounding him, not the least astonishing of which was the skilled neurosurgical care that probably saved his life.

The Ketogenic Diet Alters the Hypoxic Response and Affects Expression of Proteins Associated with Angiogenesis, Invasive Potential and Vascular Permeability in a Mouse Glioma Model

Background

The successful treatment of malignant gliomas remains a challenge despite the current standard of care, which consists of surgery, radiation and temozolomide. Advances in the survival of brain cancer patients require the design of new therapeutic approaches that take advantage of common phenotypes such as the altered metabolism found in cancer cells. It has therefore been postulated that the high-fat, low-carbohydrate, adequate protein ketogenic diet (KD) may be useful in the treatment of brain tumors. We have demonstrated that the KD enhances survival and potentiates standard therapy in a mouse model of malignant glioma, yet the mechanisms are not fully understood.

Methods

To explore the effects of the KD on various aspects of tumor growth and progression, we used the immunocompetent, syngeneic GL261-Luc2 mouse model of malignant glioma.

Results

Tumors from animals maintained on KD showed reduced expression of the hypoxia marker carbonic anhydrase 9, hypoxia inducible factor 1-alpha, and decreased activation of nuclear factor kappa B. Additionally, tumors from animals maintained on KD had reduced tumor microvasculature and decreased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2, matrix metalloproteinase-2 and vimentin. Peritumoral edema was significantly reduced in animals fed the KD and protein analyses showed altered expression of zona occludens-1 and aquaporin-4.

Conclusions

The KD directly or indirectly alters the expression of several proteins involved in malignant progression and may be a useful tool for the treatment of gliomas.