Unusual life style of giant chlorella viruses

Unveiling the GT114 family: Structural characterization of A075L, a glycosyltransferase from Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus-1 (PBCV-1)

Protein A075L is a β-xylosyltransferase that participates in producing the core of the N-glycans found in VP54, the major viral capsid protein of Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus-1 (PBCV-1). In this study, we present an X-ray crystallographic analysis of the apo form of A075L, along with its complexes with the sugar donor and with a trisaccharide acceptor. The protein structure shows a typical GT-B folding, with two Rossmann-like fold domains, in which the acceptor substrate binds to the N-terminal region, and the nucleotide-sugar donor binds to the C-terminal region. We propose that the catalytic mechanism follows a direct displacement SN2-like reaction, where Asp73 serves as a catalytic base that deprotonates the incoming nucleophile of the acceptor, facilitating direct displacement of the UDP with the inversion of the anomeric configuration of the acceptor without metal ion dependence, while the interactions with side chains of Arg158 and Arg208 stabilize the developing negative charge. Using isothermal titration calorimetry, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, high-performance liquid chromatography, and molecular dynamics simulations, the catalytic activity and specificity of this enzyme have been unraveled.

An intron endonuclease facilitates interference competition between coinfecting viruses

Introns containing homing endonucleases are widespread in nature and have long been assumed to be selfish elements that provide no benefit to the host organism. These genetic elements are common in viruses, but whether they confer a selective advantage is unclear. In this work, we studied intron-encoded homing endonuclease gp210 in bacteriophage ΦPA3 and found that it contributes to viral competition by interfering with the replication of a coinfecting phage, ΦKZ. We show that gp210 targets a specific sequence in ΦKZ, which prevents the assembly of progeny viruses. This work demonstrates how a homing endonuclease can be deployed in interference competition among viruses and provide a relative fitness advantage. Given the ubiquity of homing endonucleases, this selective advantage likely has widespread evolutionary implications in diverse plasmid and viral competition as well as virus-host interactions.

A mobile intron facilitates interference competition between co-infecting viruses

Mobile introns containing homing endonucleases are widespread in nature and have long been assumed to be selfish elements that provide no benefit to the host organism. These genetic elements are common in viruses, but whether they confer a selective advantage is unclear. Here we studied a mobile intron in bacteriophage ΦPA3 and found its homing endonuclease gp210 contributes to viral competition by interfering with the virogenesis of co-infecting phage ΦKZ. We show that gp210 targets a specific sequence in its competitor ΦKZ, preventing the assembly of progeny viruses. This work reports the first demonstration of how a mobile intron can be deployed to engage in interference competition and provide a reproductive advantage. Given the ubiquity of introns, this selective advantage likely has widespread evolutionary implications in nature.

Virologs, viral mimicry, and virocell metabolism: the expanding scale of cellular functions encoded in the complex genomes of giant viruses

The phylum Nucleocytoviricota includes the largest and most complex viruses known. These "giant viruses" have a long evolutionary history that dates back to the early diversification of eukaryotes, and over time they have evolved elaborate strategies for manipulating the physiology of their hosts during infection. One of the most captivating of these mechanisms involves the use of genes acquired from the host-referred to here as viral homologs or "virologs"-as a means of promoting viral propagation. The best-known examples of these are involved in mimicry, in which viral machinery "imitates" immunomodulatory elements in the vertebrate defense system. But recent findings have highlighted a vast and rapidly expanding array of other virologs that include many genes not typically found in viruses, such as those involved in translation, central carbon metabolism, cytoskeletal structure, nutrient transport, vesicular trafficking, and light harvesting. Unraveling the roles of virologs during infection as well as the evolutionary pathways through which complex functional repertoires are acquired by viruses are important frontiers at the forefront of giant virus research.

Viral DNA Accumulation Regulates Replication Efficiency of Chlorovirus OSy-NE5 in Two Closely Related Chlorella variabilis Strains

Many chloroviruses replicate in Chlorella variabilis algal strains that are ex-endosymbionts isolated from the protozoan Paramecium bursaria, including the NC64A and Syngen 2-3 strains. We noticed that indigenous water samples produced a higher number of plaque-forming viruses on C. variabilis Syngen 2-3 lawns than on C. variabilis NC64A lawns. These observed differences led to the discovery of viruses that replicate exclusively in Syngen 2-3 cells, named Only Syngen (OSy) viruses. Here, we demonstrate that OSy viruses initiate infection in the restricted host NC64A by synthesizing some early virus gene products and that approximately 20% of the cells produce a small number of empty virus capsids. However, the infected cells did not produce infectious viruses because the cells were unable to replicate the viral genome. This is interesting because all previous attempts to isolate host cells resistant to chlorovirus infection were due to changes in the host receptor for the virus.

Potassium viroporins as model systems for understanding eukaryotic ion channel behaviour

Ion channels are membrane proteins essential for a plethora of cellular functions including maintaining cell shape, ion homeostasis, cardiac rhythm and action potential in neurons. The complexity and often extensive structure of eukaryotic membrane proteins makes it difficult to understand their basic biological regulation. Therefore, this article suggests, viroporins - the miniature versions of eukaryotic protein homologs from viruses - might serve as model systems to provide insights into behaviour of eukaryotic ion channels in general. The structural requirements for correct assembly of the channel along with the basic functional properties of a K+ channel exist in the minimal design of the viral K+ channels from two viruses, Chlorella virus (Kcv) and Ectocarpus siliculosus virus (Kesv). These small viral proteins readily assemble into tetramers and they sort in cells to distinct target membranes. When these viruses-encoded channels are expressed into the mammalian cells, they utilise their protein machinery and hence can serve as excellent tools to study the cells protein sorting machinery. This combination of small size and robust function makes viral K+ channels a valuable model system for detection of basic structure-function correlations. It is believed that molecular and physiochemical analyses of these viroporins may serve as basis for the development of inhibitors or modulators to ion channel activity for targeting ion channel diseases - so called channelopathies. Therefore, it may provide a potential different scope for molecular pharmacology studies aiming at novel and innovative therapeutics associated with channel related diseases. This article reviews the structural and functional properties of Kcv and Kesv upon expression in mammalian cells and Xenopus oocytes. The mechanisms behind differential protein sorting in Kcv and Kesv are also thoroughly discussed.

Viral Complexity

Although traditionally viewed as streamlined and simple, discoveries over the last century have revealed that viruses can exhibit surprisingly complex physical structures, genomic organization, ecological interactions, and evolutionary histories. Viruses can have physical dimensions and genome lengths that exceed many cellular lineages, and their infection strategies can involve a remarkable level of physiological remodeling of their host cells. Virus-virus communication and widespread forms of hyperparasitism have been shown to be common in the virosphere, demonstrating that dynamic ecological interactions often shape their success. And the evolutionary histories of viruses are often fraught with complexities, with chimeric genomes including genes derived from numerous distinct sources or evolved de novo. Here we will discuss many aspects of this viral complexity, with particular emphasis on large DNA viruses, and provide an outlook for future research.

Strong Selection and High Mutation Supply Characterize Experimental Chlorovirus Evolution

Characterizing how viruses evolve expands our understanding of the underlying fundamental processes, such as mutation, selection and drift. One group of viruses whose evolution has not yet been extensively studied is the Phycodnaviridae, a globally abundant family of aquatic large double-stranded (ds) DNA viruses. Here we studied the evolutionary change of Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1 during experimental coevolution with its algal host. We used pooled genome sequencing of six independently evolved populations to characterize genomic change over five time points. Across six experimental replicates involving either strong or weak demographic fluctuations, we found single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at sixty-seven sites. The occurrence of genetic variants was highly repeatable, with just two of the SNPs found in only a single experimental replicate. Three genes A122/123R, A140/145R and A540L showed an excess of variable sites, providing new information about potential targets of selection during Chlorella–Chlorovirus coevolution. Our data indicated that the studied populations were not mutation-limited and experienced strong positive selection. Our investigation highlighted relevant processes governing the evolution of aquatic large dsDNA viruses, which ultimately contributes to a better understanding of the functioning of natural aquatic ecosystems.

Large-scale genome sequencing reveals the driving forces of viruses in microalgal evolution

Being integral primary producers in diverse ecosystems, microalgal genomes could be mined for ecological insights, but representative genome sequences are lacking for many phyla. We cultured and sequenced 107 microalgae species from 11 different phyla indigenous to varied geographies and climates. This collection was used to resolve genomic differences between saltwater and freshwater microalgae. Freshwater species showed domain-centric ontology enrichment for nuclear and nuclear membrane functions, while saltwater species were enriched in organellar and cellular membrane functions. Further, marine species contained significantly more viral families in their genomes (p = 8e-4). Sequences from Chlorovirus, Coccolithovirus, Pandoravirus, Marseillevirus, Tupanvirus, and other viruses were found integrated into the genomes of algal from marine environments. These viral-origin sequences were found to be expressed and code for a wide variety of functions. Together, this study comprehensively defines the expanse of protein-coding and viral elements in microalgal genomes and posits a unified adaptive strategy for algal halotolerance.

Marseilleviruses: An Update in 2021

The family Marseilleviridae was the second family of giant viruses that was described in 2013, after the family Mimiviridae. Marseillevirus marseillevirus, isolated in 2007 by coculture on Acanthamoeba polyphaga, is the prototype member of this family. Afterward, the worldwide distribution of marseilleviruses was revealed through their isolation from samples of various types and sources. Thus, 62 were isolated from environmental water, one from soil, one from a dipteran, one from mussels, and two from asymptomatic humans, which led to the description of 67 marseillevirus isolates, including 21 by the IHU Méditerranée Infection in France. Recently, five marseillevirus genomes were assembled from deep sea sediment in Norway. Isolated marseilleviruses have ≈250 nm long icosahedral capsids and 348–404 kilobase long mosaic genomes that encode 386–545 predicted proteins. Comparative genomic analyses indicate that the family Marseilleviridae includes five lineages and possesses a pangenome composed of 3,082 clusters of genes. The detection of marseilleviruses in both symptomatic and asymptomatic humans in stool, blood, and lymph nodes, and an up-to-30-day persistence of marseillevirus in rats and mice, raise questions concerning their possible clinical significance that are still under investigation.

Scaling relation between genome length and particle size of viruses provides insights into viral life history

In terms of genome and particle sizes, viruses exhibit great diversity. With the discovery of several nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDVs) and jumbo phages, the relationship between particle and genome sizes has emerged as an important criterion for understanding virus evolution. We use allometric scaling of capsid volume with the genome length of different groups of viruses to shed light on its relationship with virus life history. The allometric exponents for icosahedral dsDNA bacteriophages and NCDLVs were found to be 1 and 2, respectively, indicating that with increasing capsid size DNA packaging density remains the same in bacteriophages but decreases for NCLDVs. We argue that the exponents are largely shaped by their entry mechanism and capsid mechanical stability. We further show that these allometric size parameters are also intricately linked to the relative energy costs of translation and replication in viruses and can have further implications on viral life history.

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Capsid and genome size allometric exponent gives insights into viral life history

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The allometric exponent of NCLDVs is almost twice that of bacteriophages

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The exponent is largely shaped by the viral entry mechanism and capsid stability

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The relaxed genome size constraint allows large viruses to evolve greater autonomy

Using Algal Virus Paramecium bursaria Chlorella Virus as a Human Adenovirus Surrogate for Validation of UV Treatment Systems

Adenovirus is among the most UV-resistant waterborne human pathogens. There is a need to identify nonpathogenic surrogates for adenovirus for the water treatment industry. In this study, the feasibility of using the algal virus Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus (PBCV-1) as an adenovirus surrogate for validation of UV reactors was evaluated. The UV dose-response behavior of PBCV-1 to monochromatic UV radiation at 254 nm and action spectrum for wavelengths ranging from 214 to 289 nm were measured. A culture-based infectivity assay was used to evaluate viral inactivation, and a quantitative PCR assay was used to quantify DNA damage. A UV₂₅₄ dose of 150 mJ/cm² resulted in roughly 5-log₁₀ units of reduction of PBCV-1, which is similar to that of adenovirus. Furthermore, the inactivation action spectrum of PBCV-1 was similar to that of adenovirus between 214 and 289 nm. A simplified and inexpensive prepurification method was also developed to prepare PBCV-1 viral suspensions with similar inactivation behavior to purified PBCV-1. Overall, PBCV-1 appears to represent an appropriate adenovirus surrogate for UV system performance evaluation and illustrates the potential of using algal viruses as nonpathogenic, easy to culture, and readily available surrogates for human pathogens.

Chloroviruses

Chloroviruses are large dsDNA, plaque-forming viruses that infect certain chlorella-like green algae; the algae are normally mutualistic endosymbionts of protists and metazoans and are often referred to as zoochlorellae. The viruses are ubiquitous in inland aqueous environments throughout the world and occasionally single types reach titers of thousands of plaque-forming units per ml of native water. The viruses are icosahedral in shape with a spike structure located at one of the vertices. They contain an internal membrane that is required for infectivity. The viral genomes are 290 to 370 kb in size, which encode up to 16 tRNAs and 330 to ~415 proteins, including many not previously seen in viruses. Examples include genes encoding DNA restriction and modification enzymes, hyaluronan and chitin biosynthetic enzymes, polyamine biosynthetic enzymes, ion channel and transport proteins, and enzymes involved in the glycan synthesis of the virus major capsid glycoproteins. The proteins encoded by many of these viruses are often the smallest or among the smallest proteins of their class. Consequently, some of the viral proteins are the subject of intensive biochemical and structural investigation.

Giant Viruses-Big Surprises

Viruses are the most prevalent infectious agents, populating almost every ecosystem on earth. Most viruses carry only a handful of genes supporting their replication and the production of capsids. It came as a great surprise in 2003 when the first giant virus was discovered and found to have a >1 Mbp genome encoding almost a thousand proteins. Following this first discovery, dozens of giant virus strains across several viral families have been reported. Here, we provide an updated quantitative and qualitative view on giant viruses and elaborate on their shared and variable features. We review the complexity of giant viral proteomes, which include functions traditionally associated only with cellular organisms. These unprecedented functions include components of the translation machinery, DNA maintenance, and metabolic enzymes. We discuss the possible underlying evolutionary processes and mechanisms that might have shaped the diversity of giant viruses and their genomes, highlighting their remarkable capacity to hijack genes and genomic sequences from their hosts and environments. This leads us to examine prominent theories regarding the origin of giant viruses. Finally, we present the emerging ecological view of giant viruses, found across widespread habitats and ecological systems, with respect to the environment and human health.

Origin and evolution of the plant immune system

Contents Summary 70 I. Introduction 70 II. Ancient associations between plants and microbes 72 III. Evolutionary dynamics of plant-pathogen interactions 74 IV. Evolutionary signature of plant-pathogen interactions 74 V. Origin and evolution of RLK proteins 75 VI. Origin and evolution of NLR proteins 77 VII. Origin and evolution of SA signaling 78 VIII. Origin and evolution of RNA-based defense 79 IX. Perspectives 79 Acknowledgements 80 References 80 SUMMARY: Microbes have engaged in antagonistic associations with plants for hundreds of millions of years. Plants, in turn, have evolved diverse immune strategies to combat microbial pathogens. The conflicts between plants and pathogens result in everchanging coevolutionary cycles known as 'Red Queen' dynamics. These ancient and ongoing plant-pathogen interactions have shaped the evolution of both plant and pathogen genomes. With the recent explosion of plant genome-scale data, comparative analyses provide novel insights into the coevolutionary dynamics of plants and pathogens. Here, we discuss the ancient associations between plants and microbes as well as the evolutionary principles underlying plant-pathogen interactions. We synthesize and review the current knowledge on the origin and evolution of key components of the plant immune system. We also highlight the importance of studying algae and nonflowering land plants in understanding the evolution of the plant immune system.

Distinct Oceanic Microbiomes From Viruses to Protists Located Near the Antarctic Circumpolar Current

Microbes occupy diverse ecological niches and only through recent advances in next generation sequencing technologies have the true microbial diversity been revealed. Furthermore, lack of perceivable marine barriers to genetic dispersal (i.e., mountains or islands) has allowed the speculation that organisms that can be easily transported by currents and therefore proliferate everywhere. That said, ocean currents are now commonly being recognized as barriers for microbial dispersal. Here we analyzed samples collected from a total of six stations, four located in the Indian Ocean, and two in the Southern Ocean. Amplicon sequencing was used to characterize both prokaryotic and eukaryotic plankton communities, while shotgun sequencing was used for the combined environmental DNA (eDNA), microbial eDNA (meDNA), and viral fractions. We found that Cyanobacteria dominated the prokaryotic component in the South-West Indian Ocean, while γ-Proteobacteria dominated the South-East Indian Ocean. A combination of γ- and α-Proteobacteria dominated the Southern Ocean. Alveolates dominated almost exclusively the eukaryotic component, with variation in the ratio of Protoalveolata and Dinoflagellata depending on station. However, an increase in haptophyte relative abundance was observed in the Southern Ocean. Similarly, the viral fraction was dominated by members of the order Caudovirales across all stations; however, a higher presence of nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses (mainly chloroviruses and mimiviruses) was observed in the Southern Ocean. To our knowledge, this is the first that a statistical difference in the microbiome (from viruses to protists) between the subtropical Indian and Southern Oceans. We also show that not all phylotypes can be found everywhere, and that meDNA is not a suitable resource for monitoring aquatic microbial diversity.

Restriction endonuclease triggered bacterial apoptosis as a mechanism for long time survival

Programmed cell death (PCD) under certain conditions is one of the features of bacterial altruism. Given the bacterial diversity and varied life style, different PCD mechanisms must be operational that remain largely unexplored. We describe restriction endonuclease (REase) mediated cell death by an apoptotic pathway, beneficial for isogenic bacterial communities. Cell death is pronounced in stationary phase and when the enzyme exhibits promiscuous DNA cleavage activity. We have elucidated the molecular mechanism of REase mediated cell killing and demonstrate that released nutrients from dying cells support the growth of the remaining cells in the population. These findings illustrate a new intracellular moonlighting role for REases which are otherwise established host defence arsenals. REase induced PCD appears to be a cellular design to replenish nutrients for cells undergoing starvation stress and the phenomenon could be wide spread in bacteria, given the abundance of restriction–modification (R–M) systems in the microbial population.

Extracellular Matrix in Plants and Animals: Hooks and Locks for Viruses

The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal and plants cells plays important roles in viral diseases. While in animal cells extracellular matrix components can be exploited by viruses for recognition, attachment and entry, the plant cell wall acts as a physical barrier to viral entry and adds a higher level of difficulty to intercellular movement of viruses. Interestingly, both in plant and animal systems, ECM can be strongly remodeled during virus infection, and the understanding of remodeling mechanisms and molecular players offers new perspectives for therapeutic intervention. This review focuses on the different roles played by the ECM in plant and animal hosts during virus infection with special emphasis on the similarities and differences. Possible biotechnological applications aimed at improving viral resistance are discussed.

Promoter Motifs in NCLDVs: An Evolutionary Perspective

For many years, gene expression in the three cellular domains has been studied in an attempt to discover sequences associated with the regulation of the transcription process. Some specific transcriptional features were described in viruses, although few studies have been devoted to understanding the evolutionary aspects related to the spread of promoter motifs through related viral families. The discovery of giant viruses and the proposition of the new viral order Megavirales that comprise a monophyletic group, named nucleo-cytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDV), raised new questions in the field. Some putative promoter sequences have already been described for some NCLDV members, bringing new insights into the evolutionary history of these complex microorganisms. In this review, we summarize the main aspects of the transcription regulation process in the three domains of life, followed by a systematic description of what is currently known about promoter regions in several NCLDVs. We also discuss how the analysis of the promoter sequences could bring new ideas about the giant viruses’ evolution. Finally, considering a possible common ancestor for the NCLDV group, we discussed possible promoters’ evolutionary scenarios and propose the term “MEGA-box” to designate an ancestor promoter motif (‘TATATAAAATTGA’) that could be evolved gradually by nucleotides’ gain and loss and point mutations.

Chlorella species as hosts for genetic engineering and expression of heterologous proteins: Progress, challenge and perspective

The species of Chlorella represent a highly specialized group of green microalgae that can produce high levels of protein. Many Chlorella strains can grow rapidly and achieve high cell density under controlled conditions and are thus considered to be promising protein sources. Many advances in the genetic engineering of Chlorella have occurred in recent years, with significant developments in successful expression of heterologous proteins for various applications. Nevertheless, a lot of obstacles remain to be addressed, and a sophisticated and stable Chlorella expression system has yet to emerge. This review provides a brief summary of current knowledge on Chlorella and an overview of recent progress in the genetic engineering of Chlorella, and highlights the advances in the development of a genetic toolbox of Chlorella for heterologous protein expression. Research directions to further exploit the Chlorella expression system with respect to both challenges and perspectives are also discussed. This paper serves as a comprehensive literature review for the Chlorella community and will provide valuable insights into future exploration of Chlorella as a promising host for heterologous protein expression.

Long-term microbiota and virome in a Zürich patient after fecal transplantation against Clostridium difficile infection

Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) is an emerging therapeutic option for Clostridium difficile infections that are refractory to conventional treatment. FMT introduces fecal microbes into the patient's intestine that prevent the recurrence of C. difficile, leading to rapid expansion of bacteria characteristic of healthy microbiota. However, the long-term effects of FMT remain largely unknown. The C. difficile patient described in this paper revealed protracted microbiota adaptation processes from 6 to 42 months post-FMT. Ultimately, bacterial communities were donor similar, suggesting sustainable stool engraftment. Since little is known about the consequences of transmitted viruses during C. difficile infection, we also interrogated virome changes. Our approach allowed identification of about 10 phage types per sample that represented larger viral communities, and phages were found to be equally abundant in the cured patient and donor. The healthy microbiota appears to be characterized by low phage abundance. Although viruses were likely transferred, the patient established a virome distinct from the donor. Surprisingly, the patient had sequences of algal giant viruses (chloroviruses) that have not previously been reported for the human gut. Chloroviruses have not been associated with intestinal disease, but their presence in the oropharynx may influence cognitive abilities. The findings suggest that the virome is an important indicator of health or disease. A better understanding of the role of viruses in the gut ecosystem may uncover novel microbiota-modulating therapeutic strategies.

Endoplasmic Reticulum: The Favorite Intracellular Niche for Viral Replication and Assembly

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the largest intracellular organelle. It forms a complex network of continuous sheets and tubules, extending from the nuclear envelope (NE) to the plasma membrane. This network is frequently perturbed by positive-strand RNA viruses utilizing the ER to create membranous replication factories (RFs), where amplification of their genomes occurs. In addition, many enveloped viruses assemble progeny virions in association with ER membranes, and viruses replicating in the nucleus need to overcome the NE barrier, requiring transient changes of the NE morphology. This review first summarizes some key aspects of ER morphology and then focuses on the exploitation of the ER by viruses for the sake of promoting the different steps of their replication cycles.

Gene overlapping and size constraints in the viral world

Background

Viruses are the simplest replicating units, characterized by a limited number of coding genes and an exceptionally high rate of overlapping genes. We sought a unified evolutionary explanation that accounts for their genome sizes, gene overlapping and capsid properties.

Results

We performed an unbiased statistical analysis of ~100 families within ~400 genera that comprise the currently known viral world. We found that the volume utilization of capsids is often low, and greatly varies among viral families. Furthermore, although viruses span three orders of magnitude in genome length, they almost never have over 1500 overlapping nucleotides, or over four significantly overlapping genes per virus.

Conclusions

Our findings undermine the generality of the compression theory, which emphasizes optimal packing and length dependency to explain overlapping genes and capsid size in viral genomes. Instead, we propose that gene novelty and evolution exploration offer better explanations to size constraints and gene overlapping in all viruses.

Reviewers

This article was reviewed by Arne Elofsson and David Kreil.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13062-016-0128-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The Vaccinia Virus H3 Envelope Protein, a Major Target of Neutralizing Antibodies, Exhibits a Glycosyltransferase Fold and Binds UDP-Glucose

The highly conserved H3 poxvirus protein is a major target of the human antibody response against poxviruses and is likely a key contributor to protection against infection. Here, we present the crystal structure of H3 from vaccinia virus at a 1.9-Å resolution. H3 looks like a glycosyltransferase, a family of enzymes that transfer carbohydrate molecules to a variety of acceptor substrates. Like glycosyltransferases, H3 binds UDP-glucose, as shown by saturation transfer difference (STD) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and this binding requires Mg(2+) Mutation of the glycosyltransferase-like metal ion binding motif in H3 greatly diminished its binding to UDP-glucose. We found by flow cytometry that H3 binds to the surface of human cells but does not bind well to cells that are deficient in surface glycosaminoglycans. STD NMR experiments using a heparin sulfate decasaccharide confirmed that H3 binds heparin sulfate. We propose that a surface of H3 with an excess positive charge may be the binding site for heparin. Heparin binding and glycosyltransferase activity may be involved in the function of H3 in the poxvirus life cycle.

IMPORTANCE

Poxviruses are under intense research because of bioterrorism concerns, zoonotic infections, and the side effects of existing smallpox vaccines. The smallpox vaccine using vaccinia virus has been highly successful, but it is still unclear why the vaccine is so effective. Studying the antigens that the immune system recognizes may allow a better understanding of how the vaccine elicits immunity and how improved vaccines can be developed. Poxvirus protein H3 is a major target of the immune system. The H3 crystal structure shows that it has a glycosyltransferase protein fold. We demonstrate that H3 binds the sugar nucleotide UDP-glucose, as do glycosyltransferases. Our experiments also reveal that H3 binds cell surface molecules that are involved in the attachment of poxviruses to cells. These structural and functional studies of H3 will help in designing better vaccines and therapeutics.

Cell Walls and the Convergent Evolution of the Viral Envelope

Why some viruses are enveloped while others lack an outer lipid bilayer is a major question in viral evolution but one that has received relatively little attention. The viral envelope serves several functions, including protecting the RNA or DNA molecule(s), evading recognition by the immune system, and facilitating virus entry. Despite these commonalities, viral envelopes come in a wide variety of shapes and configurations. The evolution of the viral envelope is made more puzzling by the fact that nonenveloped viruses are able to infect a diverse range of hosts across the tree of life. We reviewed the entry, transmission, and exit pathways of all (101) viral families on the 2013 International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) list. By doing this, we revealed a strong association between the lack of a viral envelope and the presence of a cell wall in the hosts these viruses infect. We were able to propose a new hypothesis for the existence of enveloped and nonenveloped viruses, in which the latter represent an adaptation to cells surrounded by a cell wall, while the former are an adaptation to animal cells where cell walls are absent. In particular, cell walls inhibit viral entry and exit, as well as viral transport within an organism, all of which are critical waypoints for successful infection and spread. Finally, we discuss how this new model for the origin of the viral envelope impacts our overall understanding of virus evolution.

Long-term changes of bacterial and viral compositions in the intestine of a recovered Clostridium difficile patient after fecal microbiota transplantation

Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) is an effective treatment for recurrent Clostridium difficile infections (RCDIs). However, long-term effects on the patients' gut microbiota and the role of viruses remain to be elucidated. Here, we characterized bacterial and viral microbiota in the feces of a cured RCDI patient at various time points until 4.5 yr post-FMT compared with the stool donor. Feces were subjected to DNA sequencing to characterize bacteria and double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses including phages. The patient's microbial communities varied over time and showed little overall similarity to the donor until 7 mo post-FMT, indicating ongoing gut microbiota adaption in this time period. After 4.5 yr, the patient's bacteria attained donor-like compositions at phylum, class, and order levels with similar bacterial diversity. Differences in the bacterial communities between donor and patient after 4.5 yr were seen at lower taxonomic levels. C. difficile remained undetectable throughout the entire timespan. This demonstrated sustainable donor feces engraftment and verified long-term therapeutic success of FMT on the molecular level. Full engraftment apparently required longer than previously acknowledged, suggesting the implementation of year-long patient follow-up periods into clinical practice. The identified dsDNA viruses were mainly Caudovirales phages. Unexpectedly, sequences related to giant algae-infecting Chlorella viruses were also detected. Our findings indicate that intestinal viruses may be implicated in the establishment of gut microbiota. Therefore, virome analyses should be included in gut microbiota studies to determine the roles of phages and other viruses-such as Chlorella viruses-in human health and disease, particularly during RCDI.

Infection and Proliferation of Giant Viruses in Amoeba Cells

Acanthamoeba polyphaga mimivirus, the first discovered giant virus with genome size and particle size much larger than previously discovered viruses, possesses several genes for translation and CRISPER Cas system-like defense mechanism against virophages, which co-infect amoeba cells with the giant virus and which inhibit giant virus proliferation. Mimiviruses infect amoeba cells by phagocytosis and release their DNA into amoeba cytoplasm through their stargate structure. After infection, giant virion factories (VFs) form in amoeba cytoplasm, followed by DNA replication and particle formation at peripheral regions of VF. Marseilleviruses, the smallest giant viruses, infect amoeba cells by phagocytosis or endocytosis, form larger VF than Mimivirus's VF in amoeba cytoplasm, and replicate their particles. Pandoraviruses found in 2013 have the largest genome size and particle size among all viruses ever found. Pandoraviruses infect amoeba cells by phagocytosis and release their DNA into amoeba cytoplasm through their mouth-like apical pores. The proliferation of Pandoraviruses occurs along with nucleus disruption. New virions form at the periphery of the region formerly occupied by the amoeba cell nucleus.

Phylogenomics and sequence-structure-function relationships in the GmrSD family of Type IV restriction enzymes

BACKGROUND

GmrSD is a modification-dependent restriction endonuclease that specifically targets and cleaves glucosylated hydroxymethylcytosine (glc-HMC) modified DNA. It is encoded either as two separate single-domain GmrS and GmrD proteins or as a single protein carrying both domains. Previous studies suggested that GmrS acts as endonuclease and NTPase whereas GmrD binds DNA.

METHODS

In this work we applied homology detection, sequence conservation analysis, fold recognition and homology modeling methods to study sequence-structure-function relationships in the GmrSD restriction endonucleases family. We also analyzed the phylogeny and genomic context of the family members.

RESULTS

Results of our comparative genomics study show that GmrS exhibits similarity to proteins from the ParB/Srx fold which can have both NTPase and nuclease activity. In contrast to the previous studies though, we attribute the nuclease activity also to GmrD as we found it to contain the HNH endonuclease motif. We revealed residues potentially important for structure and function in both domains. Moreover, we found that GmrSD systems exist predominantly as a fused, double-domain form rather than as a heterodimer and that their homologs are often encoded in regions enriched in defense and gene mobility-related elements. Finally, phylogenetic reconstructions of GmrS and GmrD domains revealed that they coevolved and only few GmrSD systems appear to be assembled from distantly related GmrS and GmrD components.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study provides insight into sequence-structure-function relationships in the yet poorly characterized family of Type IV restriction enzymes. Comparative genomics allowed to propose possible role of GmrD domain in the function of the GmrSD enzyme and possible active sites of both GmrS and GmrD domains. Presented results can guide further experimental characterization of these enzymes.

Virus-host interactions: insights from the replication cycle of the large Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus

The increasing interest in cytoplasmic factories generated by eukaryotic-infecting viruses stems from the realization that these highly ordered assemblies may contribute fundamental novel insights to the functional significance of order in cellular biology. Here, we report the formation process and structural features of the cytoplasmic factories of the large dsDNA virus Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1 (PBCV-1). By combining diverse imaging techniques, including scanning transmission electron microscopy tomography and focused ion beam technologies, we show that the architecture and mode of formation of PBCV-1 factories are significantly different from those generated by their evolutionary relatives Vaccinia and Mimivirus. Specifically, PBCV-1 factories consist of a network of single membrane bilayers acting as capsid templates in the central region, and viral genomes spread throughout the host cytoplasm but excluded from the membrane-containing sites. In sharp contrast, factories generated by Mimivirus have viral genomes in their core, with membrane biogenesis region located at their periphery. Yet, all viral factories appear to share structural features that are essential for their function. In addition, our studies support the notion that PBCV-1 infection, which was recently reported to result in significant pathological outcomes in humans and mice, proceeds through a bacteriophage-like infection pathway.

Genomic comparison of closely related Giant Viruses supports an accordion-like model of evolution

Genome gigantism occurs so far in Phycodnaviridae and Mimiviridae (order Megavirales). Origin and evolution of these Giant Viruses (GVs) remain open questions. Interestingly, availability of a collection of closely related GV genomes enabling genomic comparisons offer the opportunity to better understand the different evolutionary forces acting on these genomes. Whole genome alignment for five groups of viruses belonging to the Mimiviridae and Phycodnaviridae families show that there is no trend of genome expansion or general tendency of genome contraction. Instead, GV genomes accumulated genomic mutations over the time with gene gains compensating the different losses. In addition, each lineage displays specific patterns of genome evolution. Mimiviridae (megaviruses and mimiviruses) and Chlorella Phycodnaviruses evolved mainly by duplications and losses of genes belonging to large paralogous families (including movements of diverse mobiles genetic elements), whereas Micromonas and Ostreococcus Phycodnaviruses derive most of their genetic novelties thought lateral gene transfers. Taken together, these data support an accordion-like model of evolution in which GV genomes have undergone successive steps of gene gain and gene loss, accrediting the hypothesis that genome gigantism appears early, before the diversification of the different GV lineages.

Origins and evolution of viruses of eukaryotes: The ultimate modularity

Viruses and other selfish genetic elements are dominant entities in the biosphere, with respect to both physical abundance and genetic diversity. Various selfish elements parasitize on all cellular life forms. The relative abundances of different classes of viruses are dramatically different between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In prokaryotes, the great majority of viruses possess double-stranded (ds) DNA genomes, with a substantial minority of single-stranded (ss) DNA viruses and only limited presence of RNA viruses. In contrast, in eukaryotes, RNA viruses account for the majority of the virome diversity although ssDNA and dsDNA viruses are common as well. Phylogenomic analysis yields tangible clues for the origins of major classes of eukaryotic viruses and in particular their likely roots in prokaryotes. Specifically, the ancestral genome of positive-strand RNA viruses of eukaryotes might have been assembled de novo from genes derived from prokaryotic retroelements and bacteria although a primordial origin of this class of viruses cannot be ruled out. Different groups of double-stranded RNA viruses derive either from dsRNA bacteriophages or from positive-strand RNA viruses. The eukaryotic ssDNA viruses apparently evolved via a fusion of genes from prokaryotic rolling circle-replicating plasmids and positive-strand RNA viruses. Different families of eukaryotic dsDNA viruses appear to have originated from specific groups of bacteriophages on at least two independent occasions. Polintons, the largest known eukaryotic transposons, predicted to also form virus particles, most likely, were the evolutionary intermediates between bacterial tectiviruses and several groups of eukaryotic dsDNA viruses including the proposed order "Megavirales" that unites diverse families of large and giant viruses. Strikingly, evolution of all classes of eukaryotic viruses appears to have involved fusion between structural and replicative gene modules derived from different sources along with additional acquisitions of diverse genes.

Genome analysis of the first Marseilleviridae representative from Australia indicates that most of its genes contribute to virus fitness

The family Marseilleviridae consists of Acanthamoeba-infecting large DNA viruses with icosahedral particles ∼ 0.2 μm in diameter and genome sizes in the 346- to 380-kb range. Since the isolation of Marseillevirus from a cooling tower in Paris (France) in 2009, the family Marseilleviridae has expanded rapidly, with representatives from Europe and Africa. Five members have been fully sequenced that are distributed among 3 emerging Marseilleviridae lineages. One comprises Marseillevirus and Cannes 8 virus, another one includes Insectomime virus and Tunisvirus, and the third one corresponds to the more distant Lausannevirus. We now report the genomic characterization of Melbournevirus, the first representative of the Marseilleviridae isolated from a freshwater pond in Melbourne, Australia. Despite the large distance separating this sampling point from France, Melbournevirus is remarkably similar to Cannes 8 virus and Marseillevirus, with most orthologous genes exhibiting more than 98% identical nucleotide sequences. We took advantage of this optimal evolutionary distance to evaluate the selection pressure, expressed as the ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous mutations for various categories of genes. This ratio was found to be less than 1 for all of them, including those shared solely by the closest Melbournevirus and Cannes 8 virus isolates and absent from Lausannevirus. This suggests that most of the 403 protein-coding genes composing the large Melbournevirus genome are under negative/purifying selection and must thus significantly contribute to virus fitness. This conclusion contrasts with the more common view that many of the genes of the usually more diverse large DNA viruses might be (almost) dispensable.

IMPORTANCE

A pervasive view is that viruses are fast-evolving parasites and carry the smallest possible amount of genomic information required to highjack the host cell machinery and perform their replication. This notion, probably inherited from the study of RNA viruses, is being gradually undermined by the discovery of DNA viruses with increasingly large gene content. These viruses also encode a variety of DNA repair functions, presumably slowing down their evolution by preserving their genomes from random alterations. On the other hand, these viruses also encode a majority of proteins without cellular homologs, including many shared only between the closest members of the same family. One may thus question the actual contribution of these anonymous and/or quasi-orphan genes to virus fitness. Genomic comparisons of Marseilleviridae, including a new Marseillevirus isolated in Australia, demonstrate that most of their genes, irrespective of their functions and conservation across families, are evolving under negative selection.

Multiple occurrences of giant virus core genes acquired by eukaryotic genomes: the visible part of the iceberg?

Giant Viruses are a widespread group of viruses, characterized by huge genomes composed of a small subset of ancestral, vertically inherited core genes along with a large body of highly variable genes. In this study, I report the acquisition of 23 core ancestral Giant Virus genes by diverse eukaryotic species including various protists, a moss and a cnidarian. The viral genes are inserted in large scaffolds or chromosomes with intron-rich, eukaryotic-like genomic contexts, refuting the possibility of DNA contaminations. Some of these genes are expressed and in the cryptophyte alga Guillardia theta, a possible non-homologous displacement of the eukaryotic DNA primase by a viral D5 helicase/primase is documented. As core Giant Virus genes represent only a tiny fraction of the total genomic repertoire of these viruses, these results suggest that Giant Viruses represent an underestimated source of new genes and functions for their hosts.

Comparative analyses of three Chlorella species in response to light and sugar reveal distinctive lipid accumulation patterns in the Microalga C. sorokiniana

While photosynthetic microalgae, such as Chlorella, serve as feedstocks for nutritional oils and biofuels, heterotrophic cultivation can augment growth rates, support high cell densities, and increase triacylglycerol (TAG) lipid content. However, these species differ significantly in their photoautotrophic and heterotrophic characteristics. In this study, the phylogeny of thirty Chlorella strains was determined in order to inform bioprospecting efforts and detailed physiological assessment of three species. The growth kinetics and lipid biochemistry of C. protothecoides UTEX 411, C. vulgaris UTEX 265, and C. sorokiniana UTEX 1230 were quantified during photoautotrophy in Bold's basal medium (BBM) and heterotrophy in BBM supplemented with glucose (10 g L⁻¹). Heterotrophic growth rates of UTEX 411, 265, and 1230 were found to be 1.5-, 3.7-, and 5-fold higher than their respective autotrophic rates. With a rapid nine-hour heterotrophic doubling time, Chlorella sorokiniana UTEX 1230 maximally accumulated 39% total lipids by dry weight during heterotrophy compared to 18% autotrophically. Furthermore, the discrete fatty acid composition of each strain was examined in order to elucidate lipid accumulation patterns under the two trophic conditions. In both modes of growth, UTEX 411 and 265 produced 18∶1 as the principal fatty acid while UTEX 1230 exhibited a 2.5-fold enrichment in 18∶2 relative to 18∶1. Although the total lipid content was highest in UTEX 411 during heterotrophy, UTEX 1230 demonstrated a two-fold increase in its heterotrophic TAG fraction at a rate of 28.9 mg L⁻¹ d⁻¹ to reach 22% of the biomass, corresponding to as much as 90% of its total lipids. Interestingly, UTEX 1230 growth was restricted during mixotrophy and its TAG production rate was suppressed to 18.2 mg L⁻¹ d⁻¹. This constraint on carbon flow raises intriguing questions about the impact of sugar and light on the metabolic regulation of microalgal lipid biosynthesis.

A virus-encoded potassium ion channel is a structural protein in the chlorovirus Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1 virion

Most chloroviruses encode small K(+) channels, which are functional in electrophysiological assays. The experimental finding that initial steps in viral infection exhibit the same sensitivity to channel inhibitors as the viral K(+) channels has led to the hypothesis that the channels are structural proteins located in the internal membrane of the virus particles. This hypothesis was questioned recently because proteomic studies failed to detect the channel protein in virions of the prototype chlorovirus Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1 (PBCV-1). Here, we used a mAb raised against the functional K(+) channel from chlorovirus MA-1D to search for the viral K(+) channel in the virus particle. The results showed that the antibody was specific and bound to the tetrameric channel on the extracellular side. The antibody reacted in a virus-specific manner with protein extracts from chloroviruses that encoded channels similar to that from MA-1D. There was no cross-reactivity with chloroviruses that encoded more diverse channels or with a chlorovirus that lacked a K(+) channel gene. Together with electron microscopic imaging, which revealed labelling of individual virus particles with the channel antibody, these results establish that the viral particles contain an active K(+) channel, presumably located in the lipid membrane that surrounds the DNA in the mature virions.

Structure of N-linked oligosaccharides attached to chlorovirus PBCV-1 major capsid protein reveals unusual class of complex N-glycans

The major capsid protein Vp54 from the prototype chlorovirus Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1 (PBCV-1) contains four Asn-linked glycans. The structure of the four N-linked oligosaccharides and the type of substitution at each glycosylation site was determined by chemical, spectroscopic, and spectrometric analyses. Vp54 glycosylation is unusual in many ways, including: (i) unlike most viruses, PBCV-1 encodes most, if not all, of the machinery to glycosylate its major capsid protein; (ii) the glycans are attached to the protein by a β-glucose linkage; (iii) the Asn-linked glycans are not located in a typical N-X-(T/S) consensus site; and (iv) the process probably occurs in the cytoplasm. The four glycoforms share a common core structure, and the differences are related to the nonstoichiometric presence of two monosaccharides. The most abundant glycoform consists of nine neutral monosaccharide residues, organized in a highly branched fashion. Among the most distinctive features of the glycoforms are (i) a dimethylated rhamnose as the capping residue of the main chain, (ii) a hyperbranched fucose unit, and (iii) two rhamnose residues with opposite absolute configurations. These glycoforms differ from what has been reported so far in the three domains of life. Considering that chloroviruses and other members of the family Phycodnaviridae may have a long evolutionary history, we suggest that the chlorovirus glycosylation pathway is ancient, possibly existing before the development of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi pathway, and involves still unexplored mechanisms.

Evaluation of higher plant virus resistance genes in the green alga, Chlorella variabilis NC64A, during the early phase of infection with Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus-1

With growing industrial interest in algae plus their critical roles in aquatic systems, the need to understand the effects of algal pathogens is increasing. We examined a model algal host-virus system, Chlorella variabilis NC64A and virus, PBCV-1. C. variabilis encodes 375 homologs to genes involved in RNA silencing and in response to virus infection in higher plants. Illumina RNA-Seq data showed that 325 of these homologs were expressed in healthy and early PBCV-1 infected (≤60min) cells. For each of the RNA silencing genes to which homologs were found, mRNA transcripts were detected in healthy and infected cells. C. variabilis, like higher plants, may employ certain RNA silencing pathways to defend itself against virus infection. To our knowledge this is the first examination of RNA silencing genes in algae beyond core proteins, and the first analysis of their transcription during virus infection.

Virus infection of Chlorella variabilis and enzymatic saccharification of algal biomass for bioethanol production

Experiments were conducted to investigate the application of virus infection and amylolytic enzyme treatment on sugar release from Chlorella variabilis NC64A and bioethanol production from released sugars via Escherichia coli KO11 fermentation. Chlorella variabilis NC64A accumulated starch when it was cultured in a nitrogen-limited medium. The accumulated starch was not consumed during viral infection based on analysis of sugars released during infection. Both amylolytic enzyme addition and virus infection increased the hydrolysis of carbohydrates. Addition of amylolytic enzymes increased the release of glucose from algal biomass while virus addition increased the release of non-glucose neutral sugars. The combination of enzyme addition and virus infection also resulted in the highest ethanol production after fermentation. Acetic acid was generated as a co-product during fermentation in all sets of experiments. This study demonstrated that infection of microalgae with an algal virus resulted in disruption and hydrolysis of algal biomass to generate fermentable sugars.

Mimiviridae: clusters of orthologous genes, reconstruction of gene repertoire evolution and proposed expansion of the giant virus family

Background

The family Mimiviridae belongs to the large monophyletic group of Nucleo-Cytoplasmic Large DNA Viruses (NCLDV; proposed order Megavirales) and encompasses giant viruses infecting amoeba and probably other unicellular eukaryotes. The recent discovery of the Cafeteria roenbergensis virus (CroV), a distant relative of the prototype mimiviruses, led to a substantial expansion of the genetic variance within the family Mimiviridae. In the light of these findings, a reassessment of the relationships between the mimiviruses and other NCLDV and reconstruction of the evolution of giant virus genomes emerge as interesting and timely goals.

Results

Database searches for the protein sequences encoded in the genomes of several viruses originally classified as members of the family Phycodnaviridae, in particular Organic Lake phycodnaviruses and Phaeocystis globosa viruses (OLPG), revealed a greater number of highly similar homologs in members of the Mimiviridae than in phycodnaviruses. We constructed a collection of 898 Clusters of Orthologous Genes for the putative expanded family Mimiviridae (MimiCOGs) and used these clusters for a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of the genes that are conserved in most of the NCLDV. The topologies of the phylogenetic trees for these conserved viral genes strongly support the monophyly of the OLPG and the mimiviruses. The same tree topology was obtained by analysis of the phyletic patterns of conserved viral genes. We further employed the mimiCOGs to obtain a maximum likelihood reconstruction of the history of genes losses and gains among the giant viruses. The results reveal massive gene gain in the mimivirus branch and modest gene gain in the OLPG branch.

Conclusions

These phylogenomic results reported here suggest a substantial expansion of the family Mimiviridae. The proposed expanded family encompasses a greater diversity of viruses including a group of viruses with much smaller genomes than those of the original members of the Mimiviridae. If the OLPG group is included in an expanded family Mimiviridae, it becomes the only family of giant viruses currently shown to host virophages. The mimiCOGs are expected to become a key resource for phylogenomics of giant viruses.

Towards defining the chloroviruses: a genomic journey through a genus of large DNA viruses

Background

Giant viruses in the genus Chlorovirus (family Phycodnaviridae) infect eukaryotic green microalgae. The prototype member of the genus, Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1, was sequenced more than 15 years ago, and to date there are only 6 fully sequenced chloroviruses in public databases. Presented here are the draft genome sequences of 35 additional chloroviruses (287 – 348 Kb/319 – 381 predicted protein encoding genes) collected across the globe; they infect one of three different green algal species. These new data allowed us to analyze the genomic landscape of 41 chloroviruses, which revealed some remarkable features about these viruses.

Results

Genome colinearity, nucleotide conservation and phylogenetic affinity were limited to chloroviruses infecting the same host, confirming the validity of the three previously known subgenera. Clues for the existence of a fourth new subgenus indicate that the boundaries of chlorovirus diversity are not completely determined. Comparison of the chlorovirus phylogeny with that of the algal hosts indicates that chloroviruses have changed hosts in their evolutionary history. Reconstruction of the ancestral genome suggests that the last common chlorovirus ancestor had a slightly more diverse protein repertoire than modern chloroviruses. However, more than half of the defined chlorovirus gene families have a potential recent origin (after Chlorovirus divergence), among which a portion shows compositional evidence for horizontal gene transfer. Only a few of the putative acquired proteins had close homologs in databases raising the question of the true donor organism(s). Phylogenomic analysis identified only seven proteins whose genes were potentially exchanged between the algal host and the chloroviruses.

Conclusion

The present evaluation of the genomic evolution pattern suggests that chloroviruses differ from that described in the related Poxviridae and Mimiviridae. Our study shows that the fixation of algal host genes has been anecdotal in the evolutionary history of chloroviruses. We finally discuss the incongruence between compositional evidence of horizontal gene transfer and lack of close relative sequences in the databases, which suggests that the recently acquired genes originate from a still largely un-sequenced reservoir of genomes, possibly other unknown viruses that infect the same hosts.

Diverse functions of restriction-modification systems in addition to cellular defense

Restriction-modification (R-M) systems are ubiquitous and are often considered primitive immune systems in bacteria. Their diversity and prevalence across the prokaryotic kingdom are an indication of their success as a defense mechanism against invading genomes. However, their cellular defense function does not adequately explain the basis for their immaculate specificity in sequence recognition and nonuniform distribution, ranging from none to too many, in diverse species. The present review deals with new developments which provide insights into the roles of these enzymes in other aspects of cellular function. In this review, emphasis is placed on novel hypotheses and various findings that have not yet been dealt with in a critical review. Emerging studies indicate their role in various cellular processes other than host defense, virulence, and even controlling the rate of evolution of the organism. We also discuss how R-M systems could have successfully evolved and be involved in additional cellular portfolios, thereby increasing the relative fitness of their hosts in the population.

Role of DNA methyltransferases in epigenetic regulation in bacteria

In prokaryotes, alteration in gene expression was observed with the modification of DNA, especially DNA methylation. Such changes are inherited from generation to generation with no alterations in the DNA sequence and represent the epigenetic signal in prokaryotes. DNA methyltransferases are enzymes involved in DNA modification and thus in epigenetic regulation of gene expression. DNA methylation not only affects the thermodynamic stability of DNA, but also changes its curvature. Methylation of specific residues on DNA can affect the protein-DNA interactions. DNA methylation in prokaryotes regulates a number of physiological processes in the bacterial cell including transcription, DNA mismatch repair and replication initiation. Significantly, many reports have suggested a role of DNA methylation in regulating the expression of a number of genes in virulence and pathogenesis thus, making DNA methlytransferases novel targets for the designing of therapeutics. Here, we summarize the current knowledge about the influence of DNA methylation on gene regulation in different bacteria, and on bacterial virulence.

Modularity and emergence: biology's challenge in understanding life

This essay juxtaposes modularity and emergence in the consideration of biological systems at various scalar levels of spatio-temporal organisation. It is noted that reductionism, specialisation and modularity are basic prerequisites for understanding life. It is realised that increased progress of scientific biology in elucidating mechanisms at the level of modular components supports the accusation that the more it advances in materialistic description of details, the more it diverts from understanding the innate properties of life. It is clear that modularity, by taking the whole as the sum of its parts, is insufficient for understanding living systems. At the same time, however, there is emergence, as advocated by Robert Laughlin. Emergence after the integration of modules leads to completely new properties of individual organisms as unique unitary entities, and also of systems of organisms with synergistic and antagonistic interactions of the integrated species. The discussion is predominantly based on examples from plant biology. At hierarchically higher scalar levels emergent biological systems are networks integrating species, biotopes, ecosystems and the entire biosphere of Earth, also named Gaia by James Lovelock, in a natural scientific respect. While investigating modules remains essential, biology as a nature science needs to merge and integrate such information to be able to unfold emergence. Through efforts towards visualising and understanding emergent diversity and complexity, the research discipline of biology will provide invaluable contributions to understanding life, and thus refute the accusation that it diverts from embracing the innate properties of life.

Provirophages and transpovirons as the diverse mobilome of giant viruses

A distinct class of infectious agents, the virophages that infect giant viruses of the Mimiviridae family, has been recently described. Here we report the simultaneous discovery of a giant virus of Acanthamoeba polyphaga (Lentille virus) that contains an integrated genome of a virophage (Sputnik 2), and a member of a previously unknown class of mobile genetic elements, the transpovirons. The transpovirons are linear DNA elements of ~7 kb that encompass six to eight protein-coding genes, two of which are homologous to virophage genes. Fluorescence in situ hybridization showed that the free form of the transpoviron replicates within the giant virus factory and accumulates in high copy numbers inside giant virus particles, Sputnik 2 particles, and amoeba cytoplasm. Analysis of deep-sequencing data showed that the virophage and the transpoviron can integrate in nearly any place in the chromosome of the giant virus host and that, although less frequently, the transpoviron can also be linked to the virophage chromosome. In addition, integrated fragments of transpoviron DNA were detected in several giant virus and Sputnik genomes. Analysis of 19 Mimivirus strains revealed three distinct transpovirons associated with three subgroups of Mimiviruses. The virophage, the transpoviron, and the previously identified self-splicing introns and inteins constitute the complex, interconnected mobilome of the giant viruses and are likely to substantially contribute to interviral gene transfer.