Homogeneous Suspensions of Individualized Microfibrils from TEMPO-Catalyzed Oxidation of Native Cellulose

The use of Weissler method for scale-up a Kraft pulp oxidation by TEMPO-mediated system from a batch mode to a continuous flow-through sonoreactor

The efficiency of cellulose oxidation mediated by the 4-acetamido-TEMPO radical under ultrasonic cavitation was investigated using two ultrasonic systems: a batch lab scale ultrasonic bath with a glass reactor and a semi-continuous flow-through sonoreactor. The main objective was to explore the possibility of scaling up the production of oxidized cellulose under ultrasound, from a lab scale process to a pilot plant process, which served as a precursor for producing nanofibrils cellulose. It was found that under acoustic cavitation, the efficiency of TEMPO-mediation oxidation of native cellulose was significantly improved, particularly in the flow-through sonoreactor. In comparison with the glass reactor, the flow-through sonoreactor reduce the applied energy by 88% while increasing 7.8 times the production rate of radicals. These results enable a possibility of producing oxidized fibers for industrial applications.

A Nanocellulose Polypyrrole Composite Based on Tunicate Cellulose

The water-dispersed conductive polypyrrole (PPy) was prepared via thein situoxidative chemical polymerization by using ammonium persulfate (APS) as oxidant and tunicate cellulose nanocrystals (T-CNs) as a dopant and template for tuning the morphologies of PPy nanoparticles. Highly flexible paper-like materials of PPy/T-CNs nanocomposites with high electrical conductivity values and good mechanical properties were prepared. The structure of nanocomposites of PPy/T-CNs was investigated by using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy analyses of the composites revealed that PPy consisted of nanoparticles about 2.5 nm in mean size to form a continuous coating covered on the T-CNs. The diameters of the PPy nanoparticles increased from 10 to 100 nm with the increasing pyrrole amount. Moreover, electrical properties of the obtained PPy/T-CNs films were studied using standard four-probe technique and the electrical conductivity could be as high as 10−3 S/cm.

Hard and transparent films formed by nanocellulose-TiO2 nanoparticle hybrids

The formation of hybrids of nanofibrillated cellulose and titania nanoparticles in aqueous media has been studied. Their transparency and mechanical behavior have been assessed by spectrophotometry and nanoindentation. The results show that limiting the titania nanoparticle concentration below 16 vol% yields homogeneous hybrids with a very high Young’s modulus and hardness, of up to 44 GPa and 3.4 GPa, respectively, and an optical transmittance above 80%. Electron microscopy shows that higher nanoparticle contents result in agglomeration and an inhomogeneous hybrid nanostructure with a concomitant reduction of hardness and optical transmittance. Infrared spectroscopy suggests that the nanostructure of the hybrids is controlled by electrostatic adsorption of the titania nanoparticles on the negatively charged nanocellulose surfaces.

TEMPO-oxidized nanocellulose participating as crosslinking aid for alginate-based sponges

Crosslinked polysaccharide sponges have been prepared by freeze-drying of amorphous alginate-oxidized nanocellulose in the presence of a Ca(2+) ionic crosslinking agent. The new carboxyl groups on the surface of nanocellulose induced by the chemical oxidization provided the possibility of participating in the construction of an alginate-based sponge's structure and played a fundamental role in the structural and mechanical stability of ensuing sponges. Furthermore, enhanced mechanical strength induced by oxidized cellulose nanocrystals and the formation of a semi-interpenetrating polymer network from oxidized microfibrillated cellulose were reported. Together with the facile and ionic crosslinking process, the ultrahigh porosity, promising water absorption and retention, as well as the improved compression strength of the crosslinked sponges should significantly extend the use of this soft material in diverse practical applications.

Influence of High Shear Dispersion on the Production of Cellulose Nanofibers by Ultrasound-Assisted TEMPO-Oxidation of Kraft Pulp

Cellulose nanofibers can be produced using a combination of TEMPO, sodium bromide (NaBr) and sodium hypochlorite, and mechanical dispersion. Recently, this process has been the subject of intensive investigation. However, studies on the aspects of mechanical treatment of this process remain marginal. The main objective of this study is to evaluate the high shear dispersion parameters (e.g., consistency, stator-rotor gap, recirculation rate and pH) and determine their influences on nanocellulose production using ultrasound-assisted TEMPO-oxidation of Kraft pulp. All nanofiber gels produced in this study exhibited rheological behaviors known as shear thinning. From all the dispersion parameters, the following conditions were identified as optimal: 0.042 mm stator-rotor gap, 200 mL/min recycle rate, dispersion pH of 7 and a feed consistency of 2%. High quality cellulose gel could be produced under these conditions. This finding is surely of great interest for the pulp and paper industry.

Highly Permeable Polymer Membranes Containing Directed Channels for Water Purification

This viewpoint describes the concept of using nanocomposite barrier layers containing directed water channels to increase membrane permeability for water purification. In one practical approach, the channels, formed at the interface between the interconnected nanofibrous scaffold and the polymer matrix, were used to guide the transport of water molecules in a directed manner and to also exclude contaminant molecules. This concept was demonstrated by embedding overlapped oxidized multiwalled carbon nanotubes into the poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) barrier layer for ultrafiltration (UF). We anticipate that the same approach can be extended by substituting oxidized carbon nanotubes with ultrafine cellulose nanofibers (diameter about 5 nm), which are derived from wood pulp and are environmentally friendly as well as more cost-effective, into highly cross-linked polymer barrier layers. The resulting thin-film nanofibrous composite (TFNC) membranes should exhibit a permeation flux significantly higher than those of conventional thin-film composite (TFC) membranes for nanofiltration while maintaining the same rejection capability.

Amino Acid and Peptide Immobilization on Oxidized Nanocellulose: Spectroscopic Characterization

In this work, oxidized nanocellulose (ONC) was synthesized and chemically coupled with amino acids and peptides using a two step coupling method at room temperature. First, ONC was activated by N-ethyl-N'-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide hydrochloride, forming a stable active ester in the presence of N-hydroxysuccinimide. Second, the active ester was reacted with the amino group of the amino acid or peptide, forming an amide bond between ONC and the grafted molecule. Using this method, the intermolecular interaction of amino acids and peptides was avoided and uniform coupling of these molecules on ONC was achieved. The coupling reaction was very fast in mild conditions and without alteration of the polysaccharide. The coupling products (ONC-amino acids and ONC-peptides) were characterized by transmission electron microscopy and by the absorption, emission, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectroscopic techniques.

Chitin nanofibers: preparations, modifications, and applications

Chitin nanofibers are prepared from the exoskeletons of crabs and prawns by a simple mechanical treatment after the removal of proteins and minerals. The obtained nanofibers have fine nanofiber networks with a uniform width of approximately 10-20 nm and a high aspect ratio. The method used for chitin-nanofiber isolation is also successfully applied to the cell walls of mushrooms. They form a complex with glucans on the fiber surface. A grinder, a Star Burst atomization system, and a high speed blender are all used in the mechanical treatment to convert chitin to nanofibers. Mechanical treatment under acidic conditions is the key to facilitate fibrillation. At pH 3-4, the cationization of amino groups on the fiber surface assists nano-fibrillation by electrostatic repulsive force. By applying this finding, we also prepared chitin nanofibers from dry chitin powder. Chitin nanofibers are acetylated to modify their surfaces. The acetyl DS can be controlled from 1 to 3 by changing the reaction time. An acetyl group is introduced heterogeneously from the surface to the core. Nanofiber morphology is maintained even in the case of high acetyl DS. Optically transparent chitin nanofiber composites are prepared with 11 different types of acrylic resins. Due to the nano-sized structure, all of the composites are highly transparent. Chitin nanofibers significantly increase the Young's moduli and the tensile strengths and decrease the thermal expansion of all acrylic resins due to the reinforcement effect of chitin nanofibers. Chitin nanofibers show chiral separation ability. The chitin nanofiber membrane transports the d-isomer of glutamic acid, phenylalanine, and lysine from the corresponding racemic amino acid mixtures faster than the corresponding l-isomer. The chitin nanofibers improve clinical symptoms and suppress ulcerative colitis in a DSS-induced mouse model of acute ulcerative colitis. Moreover, chitin nanofibers suppress myeloperoxidase activation in the colon and decrease serum interleukin-6 concentrations.

Cellulose nanofibrils prepared from softwood cellulose by TEMPO/NaClO/NaClO₂ systems in water at pH 4.8 or 6.8

Catalytic oxidation of softwood cellulose using NaClO and either 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (4-H-TEMPO) or 4-acetamido-TEMPO (4-AcNH-TEMPO) was applied with NaClO(2) used as a primary oxidant in an aqueous buffer at pH 4.8 or 6.8. When the 4-AcNH-TEMPO-mediated oxidation was applied to softwood cellulose in water at pH 4.8 and 40 °C, the carboxylate content rose to ∼1.3 mmol/g after reaction for 48 h and the DP(v) value was more than 1100. This 4-AcNH-TEMPO-oxidized softwood cellulose was mostly converted to individual nanofibrils by mechanical disintegration in water, with uniform widths of 3-4 nm and lengths greater than 1 μm.

Optically Transparent Nanocomposite Based on Cellulose Nanofibers from Newspapers and Polyurethane

The goal of this paper was to develop an optically transparent nanocomposite with high strength by reinforcing polyurethane (PU) with cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) extracted from newspapers. The FE-SEM images show that through chemical and mechanical treatments, newspaper CNFs with diameters ranged from 20 to 100 nm and an aspect ratio of over 1000 were successfully obtained as well as wood powder. They were cross-linked together and formed a special three-dimensional network structure. The nanocomposite was fabricated by impregnating the CNF sheet into transparent PU resin and cured under ultraviolet. Results demonstrate that the transparency of newspaper CNF/PU nanocomposite was as high as wood CNF/PU nanocomposite. The elastic modulus and tensile strength of newspaper CNF/PU composite were increased roughly eighteen times and two times respectively while retaining the high transparency of PU, which was nearly the same with wood CNF/PU composite.

Cellulose nanocrystal/silver nanoparticle composites as bifunctional nanofillers within waterborne polyurethane

Developing bionanocomposites from renewable biomass is a viable supplement for materials produced from mineral and fossil fuel resources. In this study, nanocomposites composed of carboxylated cellulose nanocrystals (CCNs) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were prepared and used as bifunctional nanofillers to improve the mechanical and antimicrobial properties of waterborne polyurethane (WPU). Morphology, structure and performance of the CCNs/AgNPs nanocomposites and WPU-based films were investigated. WPU-based composite films were homogeneous and reinforced. The WPU/CCNs/AgNPs composite showed excellent antimicrobial properties in killing both Gram-negative E. coli and Gram-positive S. aureus. The CCNs/AgNPs nanocomposites could be applied as bifunctional nanofillers within WPU.

On the structure and oxygen transmission rate of biodegradable cellulose nanobarriers

Cellulose nanofibrils have been proposed for novel barrier concepts, based on their capability to form smooth, strong and transparent films, with high oxygen barrier properties. A series of cellulose-based films were manufactured and tested with respect to their oxygen transmission rate (OTR) capabilities. The obtained OTR levels were considerably better than the levels recommended for packaging applications. Part of the nanofibrillated material applied in this study was produced with 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinyl-1-oxyl (TEMPO) mediated oxidation as pretreatment. Films made of TEMPO-pretreated samples yielded lower OTR values. The minimum obtained OTR value was 3.0 mL m-2 day-1 atm-1 with a corresponding oxygen permeability of 0.04 mL mm m-2 day-1 atm-1, tested at 50% relative humidity. The good barrier properties are due to the compact and dense structure of the films, as revealed by field-emission scanning electron microscopy. A relationship between OTR and the structure of the corresponding nanofibril-based films was confirmed.

Catalysis using gold nanoparticles decorated on nanocrystalline cellulose

A novel nanocomposite was prepared by deposition of carbonate-stabilized Au nanoparticles (AuNPs) onto the surface of poly(diallyldimethyl ammonium chloride) (PDDA)-coated carboxylated nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC). The hybrid material possessed AuNPs (1.45% by weight) with an average diameter of 2.95 ± 0.06 nm. The catalytic activity of AuNP/PDDA/NCC for reducing 4-nitrophenol to 4-aminophenol was compared to other Au-supported composites. An activation energy of 69.2 kJ mol(-1) was obtained for the reaction. Indeed, the reaction rate constant k of (5.1 ± 0.2) × 10(-3) s(-1) was comparable to the benchmark literature value obtained using AuNPs (<5 nm in diameter) decorated on a network of crystalline cellulose fibers. Our strategy promotes the use of natural resources to prepare reusable hybrid inorganic-organic materials for important reactions with facilitated product isolation/purification.

Immobilization-stabilization of proteins on nanofibrillated cellulose derivatives and their bioactive film formation

In a number of different applications for enzymes and specific binding proteins a key technology is the immobilization of these proteins to different types of supports. In this work we describe a concept for protein immobilization that is based on nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC). NFC is a form of cellulose where fibers have been disintegrated into fibrils that are only a few nanometers in diameter and have a very large aspect ratio. Proteins were conjugated through three different strategies using amine, epoxy, and carboxylic acid functionalized NFC. The conjugation chemistries were chosen according to the reactive groups on the NFC derivatives; epoxy amination, heterobifunctional modification of amino groups, and EDC/s-NHS activation of carboxylic acid groups. The conjugation reactions were performed in solution and immobilization was performed by spin coating the protein-NCF conjugates. The structure of NFC was shown to be advantageous for both protein performance and stability. The use of NFC allows all covalent chemistry to be performed in solution, while the immobilization is achieved by a simple spin coating or spreading of the protein-NFC conjugates on a support. This allows more scalable methods and better control of conditions compared to the traditional methods that depend on surface reactions.

Cellulose nanofiber orientation in nanopaper and nanocomposites by cold drawing

To exploit the mechanical potential of native cellulose fibrils, we report on the preparation of nanopaper with preferred orientation of nanofibrillated cellulose (TEMPO-NFC) by cold drawing. The preparation route is papermaking-like and includes vacuum filtering of a TEMPO-oxidated NFC water dispersion, drawing in wet state and drying. The orientation of the fibrils in the nanopaper was assessed by AFM and wide-angle X-ray diffraction analysis, and the effect on mechanical properties of the resulting nanopaper structure was investigated by tensile tests. At high draw ratio, the degree of orientation is as high as 82 and 89% in-the-plane and cross-sectional planes of the nanopaper, respectively, and the Young's modulus is 33 GPa. This is much higher than mechanical properties of isotropic nanopaper. The cold drawing method can be also applied to NFC nanocomposites as demonstrated by preparation of TEMPO-NFC/hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC) nanocomposites. The introduction of the soft HEC matrix allows further tailoring of the mechanical properties.

Ultrafine Cellulose Nanofibers as Efficient Adsorbents for Removal of UO22+ in Water

Ultrafine cellulose nanofibers, 5-10 nm in diameter, were prepared from oxidation of wood pulp using the (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl)oxyl (TEMPO)/NaBr/NaClO process followed by mechanical treatment. Carboxylate groups on the surface of these nanofibers provide negative charges, which are very effective to adsorb radioactive UO₂²⁺ in water, evidenced by static adsorption and high resolution transmission electron microscopy (TEM) measurements. The UO₂²⁺ adsorption capability of ultrafine cellulose nanofibers was about 167 mg/g, which is 2-3 times higher than those of typical adsorbents such as montmorillonite, ion imprinted polymer particles, modified silica particles/fibrous membranes, and hydrogels. The high UO₂²⁺ adsorption capability can be attributed to the very high surface-to-volume ratio, high surface charge density, and hydrophilicity of ultrafine cellulose nanofibers, which can be used as effective media to remove radioactive metals from radio-nuclear wastewater.

Micromechanics of TEMPO-oxidized fibrillated cellulose composites

Composites of poly(lactic) acid (PLA) reinforced with TEMPO-oxidized fibrillated cellulose (TOFC) were prepared to 15, 20, 25, and 30% fiber weight fractions. To aid dispersion and to improve stress transfer, we acetylated the TOFC prior to the fabrication of TOFC-PLA composite films. Raman spectroscopy was employed to study the deformation micromechanics in these systems. Microtensile specimens were prepared from the films and deformed in tension with Raman spectra being collected simultaneously during deformation. A shift in a Raman peak initially located at ~1095 cm(-1), assigned to C-O-C stretching of the cellulose backbone, was observed upon deformation, indicating stress transfer from the matrix to the TOFC reinforcement. The highest band shift rate, with respect to strain, was observed in composites having a 30% weight fraction of TOFC. These composites also displayed a significantly higher strain to failure compared to pure acetylated TOFC film, and to the composites having lower weight fractions of TOFC. The stress-transfer processes that occur in microfibrillated cellulose composites are discussed with reference to the micromechanical data presented. It is shown that these TOFC-based composite materials are progressively dominated by the mechanics of the networks, and a shear-lag type stress transfer between fibers.

Chitin whiskers: an overview

Chitin is the second most abundant semicrystalline polysaccharide. Like cellulose, the amorphous domains of chitin can also be removed under certain conditions such as acidolysis to give rise to crystallites in nanoscale, which are the so-called chitin nanocrystals or chitin whiskers (CHWs). CHW together with other organic nanoparticles such as cellulose whisker (CW) and starch nanocrystal show many advantages over traditional inorganic nanoparticles such as easy availability, nontoxicity, biodegradability, low density, and easy modification. They have been widely used as substitutes for inorganic nanoparticles in reinforcing polymer nanocomposites. The research and development of CHW related areas are much slower than those of CW. However, CHWs are still of strategic importance in the resource scarcity periods because of their abundant availability and special properties. During the past decade, increasing studies have been done on preparation of CHWs and their application in reinforcing polymer nanocomposites. Some other applications such as being used as feedstock to prepare chitosan nanoscaffolds have also been investigated. This Article is to review the recent development on CHW related studies.

Cross-linking cellulose nanofibrils for potential elastic cryo-structured gels

Cellulose nanofibrils were produced from P. radiata kraft pulp fibers. The nanofibrillation was facilitated by applying 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinyl-1-oxyl-mediated oxidation as pretreatment. The oxidized nanofibrils were cross-linked with polyethyleneimine and poly N-isopropylacrylamide-co-allylamine-co-methylenebisacrylamide particles and were frozen to form cryo-structured gels. Samples of the gels were critical-point dried, and the corresponding structures were assessed with scanning electron microscopy. It appears that the aldehyde groups in the oxidized nanofibrils are suitable reaction sites for cross-linking. The cryo-structured materials were spongy, elastic, and thus capable of regaining their shape after a given pressure was released, indicating a successful cross-linking. These novel types of gels are considered potential candidates in biomedical and biotechnological applications.

Quantitative electron microscopy of cellulose nanofibril structures from Eucalyptus and Pinus radiata kraft pulp fibers

This work comprises the structural characterization of Eucalyptus and Pinus radiata pulp fibers and their corresponding fibrillated materials, based on quantitative electron microscopy techniques. Compared to hardwood fibers, the softwood fibers have a relatively open structure of the fiber wall outer layers. The fibrillation of the fibers was performed mechanically and chemi-mechanically. In the chemi-mechanical process, the pulp fibers were subjected to a TEMPO-mediated oxidation to facilitate the homogenization. Films were made of the fibrillated materials to evaluate some structural properties. The thicknesses and roughnesses of the films were evaluated with standardized methods and with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), in backscattered electron imaging mode. Field-emission SEM (FE-SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were performed to quantify the nanofibril morphology. In this study, we give additional and significant evidences about the suitability of electron microscopy techniques for quantification of nanofibril structures. In addition, we conclude that standard methods are not suitable for estimating the thickness of films having relatively rough surfaces. The results revealed significant differences with respect to the morphology of the fibrillated material. The differences are due to the starting raw material and to the procedure applied for the fibrillation.

Cellulose nanofibrils as filler for adhesives: effect on specific fracture energy of solid wood-adhesive bonds

Cellulose nanofibrils were prepared by mechanical fibrillation of never-dried beech pulp and bacterial cellulose. To facilitate the separation of individual fibrils, one part of the wood pulp was surface-carboxylated by a catalytic oxidation using (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl)oxyl (TEMPO) as a catalyst. After fibrillation by a high pressure homogenizer, the obtained aqueous fibril dispersions were directly mixed with different urea-formaldehyde-(UF)-adhesives. To investigate the effect of added cellulose filler on the fracture mechanical properties of wood adhesive bonds, double cantilever beam specimens were prepared from spruce wood. While the highest fracture energy values were observed for UF-bonds filled with untreated nanofibrils prepared from wood pulp, bonds filled with TEMPO-oxidized fibrils showed less satisfying performance. It is proposed that UF-adhesive bonds can be significantly toughened by the addition of only small amounts of cellulose nanofibrils. Thereby, the optimum filler content is largely depending on the adhesive and type of cellulose filler used.

Cellulose fibres, nanofibrils and microfibrils: The morphological sequence of MFC components from a plant physiology and fibre technology point of view

During the last decade, major efforts have been made to develop adequate and commercially viable processes for disintegrating cellulose fibres into their structural components. Homogenisation of cellulose fibres has been one of the principal applied procedures. Homogenisation has produced materials which may be inhomogeneous, containing fibres, fibres fragments, fibrillar fines and nanofibrils. The material has been denominated microfibrillated cellulose (MFC). In addition, terms relating to the nano-scale have been given to the MFC material. Several modern and high-tech nano-applications have been envisaged for MFC. However, is MFC a nano-structure? It is concluded that MFC materials may be composed of (1) nanofibrils, (2) fibrillar fines, (3) fibre fragments and (4) fibres. This implies that MFC is not necessarily synonymous with nanofibrils, microfibrils or any other cellulose nano-structure. However, properly produced MFC materials contain nano-structures as a main component, i.e. nanofibrils.