Guanine-nucleotide-releasing factor hSos1 binds to Grb2 and links receptor tyrosine kinases to Ras signalling

Transcription factor p91 interacts with the epidermal growth factor receptor and mediates activation of the c-fos gene promoter

Transcription factor p91 contains a SH2 domain and is activated by tyrosine phosphorylation. Here we demonstrate that epidermal growth factor (EGF) induces rapid tyrosine phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of p91. Through its SH2 domain, p91 directly interacts with the EGF receptor in a ligand-dependent manner. p91 is a necessary component of an EGF-induced DNA-binding factor that recognizes a previously identified regulatory element, SIE (c-sis-inducible element), in the c-fos gene promoter. Activated p91 stimulates SIE-dependent transcription in vitro. Cotransfection of an SIE-containing reporter with a p91 expression vector shows that p91 is a positive transcriptional regulator of the c-fos gene promoter. These studies suggest that EGF uses a direct signaling pathway to control nuclear transcriptional events.

Ras-independent growth factor signaling by transcription factor tyrosine phosphorylation

Interferons induce transcriptional activation through tyrosine phosphorylation of the latent, cytoplasmic transcription factor interferon-stimulated gene factor-3 (ISGF-3). Growth factors and cytokines were found to use a similar pathway: The 91-kilodalton subunit of ISGF-3 was activated and tyrosine phosphorylated in response to epidermal growth factor (EGF), platelet-derived growth factor, and colony stimulating factor-1. The tyrosine phosphorylated factor acquired DNA binding activity and accumulated in nuclei. Activation required the major sites for autophosphorylation on the EGF receptor that bind Src homology region 2 domain-containing proteins implicated in Ras activation. However, activation of this factor was independent of the normal functioning of Ras.

Molecular cloning of the mouse grb2 gene: differential interaction of the Grb2 adaptor protein with epidermal growth factor and nerve growth factor receptors

We report the isolation and molecular characterization of the mouse grb2 gene. The product of this gene, the Grb2 protein, is highly related to the Caenorhabditis elegans sem-5 gene product and the human GRB2 protein and displays the same SH3-SH2-SH3 structural motifs. In situ hybridization studies revealed that the mouse grb2 gene is widely expressed throughout embryonic development (E9.5 to P0). However, grb2 transcripts are not uniformly distributed, and in certain tissues (e.g., thymus) they appear to be regulated during development. Recent genetic and biochemical evidence has implicated the Grb2 protein in the signaling pathways that link cell surface tyrosine kinase receptors with Ras. We have investigated the association of the Grb2 protein with epidermal growth factor (EGF) and nerve growth factor (NGF) receptors in PC12 pheochromocytoma cells. EGF treatment of PC12 cells results in the rapid association of Grb2 with the activated EGF receptors, an interaction mediated by the Grb2 SH2 domain. However, Grb2 does not bind to NGF-activated Trk receptors. Mitogenic signaling of NGF in NIH 3T3 cells ectopically expressing Trk receptors also takes place without detectable association between Grb2 and Trk. These results suggest that whereas EGF and NGF can activate the Ras signaling pathway in PC12 cells, only the EGF receptor is likely to do so through a direct interaction with Grb2. Finally, binding studies with glutathione S-transferase fusion proteins indicate that Grb2 binds two distinct subsets of proteins which are individually recognized by its SH2 and SH3 domains. These observations add further support to the concept that Grb2 is a modular adaptor protein.

Mitogenic activation of the Ras guanine nucleotide exchange factor in NIH 3T3 cells involves protein tyrosine phosphorylation

We report biochemical evidence that epidermal growth factor and platelet-derived growth factor stimulate the Ras guanine nucleotide exchange factor activity in quiescent NIH 3T3 cells. Moreover, the exchange activity is constitutively enhanced in NIH 3T3 cells transformed by Src and ErbB2 oncogenic tyrosine protein kinases (TPKs), whereas transformation by oncogenic Mos and Raf does not alter the activity. GTPase-activating protein activity was not affected under these conditions. Overexpression of pp60c-Src mutants containing activated and suppressor TPK mutations resulted in stimulation and inhibition of the exchange factor activity, respectively. A TPK inhibitor, genistein, prevented the activation of the exchange factor in epidermal growth factor/platelet-derived growth factor-treated cells and src-transformed cells. Furthermore, the exchange factor activity bound to an anti-phosphotyrosine antibody immunoaffinity column. These findings suggest that the guanine nucleotide exchange factor, but not GTPase-activating protein, plays a major role in the Ras activation in cell proliferation initiated by growth factor receptor TPKs and malignant transformation by oncogenic TPKs and that tyrosine phosphorylation of either the exchange factor or a tightly bound protein(s) may mediate the activation of the exchange factor by these TPKs.

The PH domain: a common piece in the structural patchwork of signalling proteins

The 'pleckstrin homology' domain is an approximately 100-residue protein module that has recently been added to the domain catalogue of signalling proteins. For this review we have made an extensive database search using a profile search method, and found a number of additional proteins that may contain PH domains. The PH domain is present in many kinases, isoforms of phospholipase C, GTPases, GTPase-activating proteins and nucleotide-exchange factors, including such proteins as Vav, Dbl and Bcr, and there are two PH domains in a guanine-nucleotide releasing factor of Ras. Many PH-domain-containing proteins interact with GTP-binding proteins. We have also identified a PH domain in beta-adrenergic receptor kinase exactly in the region that has already been shown to be involved in binding to the beta and gamma subunits of a heterotrimeric G protein. This suggests that PH domains may be involved in interactions with GTP-binding proteins.

Molecular cloning of the mouse grb2 gene: differential interaction of the Grb2 adaptor protein with epidermal growth factor and nerve growth factor receptors

We report the isolation and molecular characterization of the mouse grb2 gene. The product of this gene, the Grb2 protein, is highly related to the Caenorhabditis elegans sem-5 gene product and the human GRB2 protein and displays the same SH3-SH2-SH3 structural motifs. In situ hybridization studies revealed that the mouse grb2 gene is widely expressed throughout embryonic development (E9.5 to P0). However, grb2 transcripts are not uniformly distributed, and in certain tissues (e.g., thymus) they appear to be regulated during development. Recent genetic and biochemical evidence has implicated the Grb2 protein in the signaling pathways that link cell surface tyrosine kinase receptors with Ras. We have investigated the association of the Grb2 protein with epidermal growth factor (EGF) and nerve growth factor (NGF) receptors in PC12 pheochromocytoma cells. EGF treatment of PC12 cells results in the rapid association of Grb2 with the activated EGF receptors, an interaction mediated by the Grb2 SH2 domain. However, Grb2 does not bind to NGF-activated Trk receptors. Mitogenic signaling of NGF in NIH 3T3 cells ectopically expressing Trk receptors also takes place without detectable association between Grb2 and Trk. These results suggest that whereas EGF and NGF can activate the Ras signaling pathway in PC12 cells, only the EGF receptor is likely to do so through a direct interaction with Grb2. Finally, binding studies with glutathione S-transferase fusion proteins indicate that Grb2 binds two distinct subsets of proteins which are individually recognized by its SH2 and SH3 domains. These observations add further support to the concept that Grb2 is a modular adaptor protein.

Binding of the Ras activator son of sevenless to insulin receptor substrate-1 signaling complexes

Signal transmission by insulin involves tyrosine phosphorylation of a major insulin receptor substrate (IRS-1) and exchange of Ras-bound guanosine diphosphate for guanosine triphosphate. Proteins containing Src homology 2 and 3 (SH2 and SH3) domains, such as the p85 regulatory subunit of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase and growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 (GRB2), bind tyrosine phosphate sites on IRS-1 through their SH2 regions. Such complexes in COS cells were found to contain the heterologously expressed putative guanine nucleotide exchange factor encoded by the Drosophila son of sevenless gene (dSos). Thus, GRB2, p85, or other proteins with SH2-SH3 adapter sequences may link Sos proteins to IRS-1 signaling complexes as part of the mechanism by which insulin activates Ras.

The function of GRB2 in linking the insulin receptor to Ras signaling pathways

Insulin-induced activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases [ERKs, also known as mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases] is mediated by Ras. Insulin activates Ras primarily by increasing the rate of guanine nucleotide-releasing activity. Here, we show that insulin-induced activation of ERKs was enhanced by stable overexpression of growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 (GRB2) but not by overexpression of GRB2 proteins with point mutations in the Src homology 2 and 3 domains. Moreover, a dominant negative form of Ras (with Ser17 substituted with Asn) blocked insulin-induced activation of ERKs in cells that overexpressed GRB2. GRB2 overexpression led to increased formation of a complex between the guanine nucleotide-releasing factor Sos (the product of the mammalian homolog of son of sevenless gene) and GRB2. In response to insulin stimulation, this complex bound to tyrosine-phosphorylated IRS-1 (insulin receptor substrate-1) and Shc. In contrast to the activated epidermal growth factor receptor that binds the GRB2-Sos complex directly, activation of the insulin receptor results in the interaction of GRB2-Sos with IRS-1 and Shc, thus linking the insulin receptor to Ras signaling pathways.

Grb2 mediates the EGF-dependent activation of guanine nucleotide exchange on Ras

Activation of receptor tyrosine kinases such as those for epidermal growth factor (EGF), platelet-derived growth factor, or nerve growth factor converts the inactive, GDP-bound form of Ras to the active, GTP-bound form, and a dominant negative mutant of Ras interferes with signalling from such receptors. The mechanisms by which receptor tyrosine kinases and Ras are coupled, however, are not well understood. Many cytoplasmic proteins regulated by such receptors contain Src-homology (SH) 2 and 3 domains, and the SH2- and SH3-containing protein Grb2, like its homologue from Caenorhabditis elegans, Sem-5, appears to play an important role in the control of Ras by receptor tyrosine kinases. Here we show that overexpression of Grb2 potentiates the EGF-induced activation of Ras and mitogen-activated protein kinase by enhancing the rate of guanine nucleotide exchange on Ras. Cellular Grb2 appears to form a complex with a guanine-nucleotide-exchange factor for Ras, which binds to the ligand-activated EGF receptor, allowing the tyrosine kinase to modulate Ras activity.

The SH2 and SH3 domains of mammalian Grb2 couple the EGF receptor to the Ras activator mSos1

Many tyrosine kinases, including the receptors for hormones such as epidermal growth factor (EGF), nerve growth factor and insulin, transmit intracellular signals through Ras proteins. Ligand binding to such receptors stimulates Ras guanine-nucleotide-exchange activity and increases the level of GTP-bound Ras, suggesting that these tyrosine kinases may activate a guanine-nucleotide releasing protein (GNRP). In Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila, genetic studies have shown that Ras activation by tyrosine kinases requires the protein Sem-5/drk, which contains a single Src-homology (SH) 2 domain and two flanking SH3 domains. Sem-5 is homologous to the mammalian protein Grb2, which binds the autophosphorylated EGF receptor and other phosphotyrosine-containing proteins such as Shc through its SH2 domain. Here we show that in rodent fibroblasts, the SH3 domains of Grb2 are bound to the proline-rich carboxy-terminal tail of mSos1, a protein homologous to Drosophila Sos. Sos is required for Ras signalling and contains a central domain related to known Ras-GNRPs. EGF stimulation induces binding of the Grb2-mSos1 complex to the autophosphorylated EGF receptor, and mSos1 phosphorylation. Grb2 therefore appears to link tyrosine kinases to a Ras-GNRP in mammalian cells.

A murine CDC25/ras-GRF-related protein implicated in Ras regulation

A partial cDNA encoding a novel putative p2, ras guanine nucleotide release-inducing factor (GRF), GRF2, was amplified from murine embryonic stem cells. The presumptive catalytic region of GRF2 is related to the yeast Ras GRF encoded by CDC25. GRF2 is 80% identical to murine CDC25Mm/ras-GRF, but is more similar to yeast CDC25 than to other ras GRFs related to the Drosophila son of sevenless gene product. A 9-kb GRF2 messenger RNA was highly expressed in brain, but GRF2-specific antibodies recognized apparent GRF2 proteins in various mouse tissues in addition to brain. Thus GRF2 represents a novel widely-expressed protein that is highly related to CDC25Mm/ras-GRF, at least in its catalytic domain. Both GRF2 and CDC25Mm/ras-GRF are expressed in murine embryonic stem cells, suggesting that different Ras activators may regulate ras-dependent proliferation and differentiation in early mouse development.