Stature and body mass estimation from skeletal remains in the European Holocene

Femoral neck and shaft structure in Homo naledi from the Dinaledi Chamber (Rising Star System, South Africa)

The abundant femoral assemblage of Homo naledi found in the Dinaledi Chamber provides a unique opportunity to test hypotheses regarding the taxonomy, locomotion, and loading patterns of this species. Here we describe neck and shaft cross-sectional structure of all the femoral fossils recovered in the Dinaledi Chamber and compare them to a broad sample of fossil hominins, recent humans, and extant apes. Cross-sectional geometric (CSG) properties from the femoral neck (base of neck and midneck) and diaphysis (subtrochanteric region and midshaft) were obtained through CT scans for H. naledi and through CT scans or from the literature for the comparative sample. The comparison of CSG properties of H. naledi and the comparative samples shows that H. naledi femoral neck is quite derived with low superoinferior cortical thickness ratio and high relative cortical area. The neck appears superoinferiorly elongated because of two bony pilasters on its superior surface. Homo naledi femoral shaft shows a relatively thick cortex compared to the other hominins. The subtrochanteric region of the diaphysis is mediolaterally elongated resembling early hominins while the midshaft is anteroposteriorly elongated, indicating high mobility levels. In term of diaphyseal robusticity, the H. naledi femur is more gracile that other hominins and most apes. Homo naledi shows a unique combination of characteristics in its femur that undoubtedly indicate a species committed to terrestrial bipedalism but with a unique loading pattern of the femur possibly consequence of the unique postcranial anatomy of the species.

Femur associated with the Deep Skull from the West Mouth of the Niah Caves (Sarawak, Malaysia)

The skeletal remains of Pleistocene anatomically modern humans are rare in island Southeast Asia. Moreover, continuing doubts over the dating of most of these finds has left the arrival time for the region's earliest inhabitants an open question. The unique biogeography of island Southeast Asia also raises questions about the physical and cultural adaptations of early anatomically modern humans, especially within the setting of rainforest inhabitation. Within this context the Deep Skull from the West Mouth of the Niah Caves continues to figure prominently owing to its relative completeness and the greater certainty surrounding its geological age. Recovered along with this partial cranium in 1958 were several postcranial bones including a partial femur which until now has received little attention. Here we provide a description and undertake a comparison of the Deep Skull femur finding it to be very small in all of its cross-sectional dimensions. We note a number of size and shape similarities to the femora of Indigenous Southeast Asians, especially Aeta people from the Philippines. We estimate its stature to have been roughly 145-146 cm and body mass around 35 kg, confirming similarities to Aeta females. Its extreme gracility indicated by low values for a range of biomechanical parameters taken midshaft meets expectations for a very small (female) Paleolithic East Asian. Interestingly, the second moment of area about the mediolateral axis is enlarged relative to the second moment of area about the anteroposterior axis, which could potentially signal a difference in activity levels or lifestyle compared with other Paleolithic femora. However, it might also be the result of sexual dimorphism in these parameters as well as possibly reflecting changes associated with aging.

Effects of age and body proportions on stature estimation

OBJECTIVES

Two issues involved in mathematical estimation of stature from long bone lengths are explored: the use of different age points for estimating maximum adult stature, and the effects of linear body proportions on stature estimation errors. Both issues were raised by a recent analysis of stature in the British Medieval Wharram Percy sample.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A large (n > 500) sample of European skeletal remains with anatomically estimated statures is used to test associations between relative lower limb length and errors in stature estimation using previously published equations for European samples. Two cadaveric samples of known ages (Terry and Bass Collections) are used to identify the most appropriate age point to employ in a linear equation with an age term for estimation of maximum adult anatomical stature.

RESULTS

Relative lower limb length is positively correlated with errors in stature estimation from lower limb bone lengths. Underestimation of stature in the Wharram Percy sample by the European equations is largely attributable to the relatively short lower limbs of this sample compared to Europeans in general. Two methods for assessing and adjusting for relative lower limb length variation are presented. Maximum adult stature is best estimated using an age point of 30 years when a linear age term is employed.

DISCUSSION

Body proportions may vary even within relatively closely related populations, so should be assessed and compared to those of reference samples whenever possible when applying mathematical stature equations.

Evidence of aortic dissection and Marfan syndrome in a mummy from the Capuchin Catacombs of Palermo, Sicily

The authors report on the assessment of an anthropogenic mummy of a young man from the Capuchin Catacombs of Palermo, Sicily, tentatively dated from the mid- to late 19^th century AD. The mummy was investigated by full-body CT examination. CT images clearly showed aortic dissection classified as Stanford-A. Due to the relation of aortic dissection to inherited connective tissue diseases in young people, such as Marfan syndrome, conspicuous and pathological findings possibly indicating the presence of underlying Marfan syndrome were assessed. Several systemic features were scored that supported the presence of underlying Marfan syndrome in this mummy. These findings were: pectus carinatum and chest asymmetry, dural ectasia, protrusio acetabuli, dolichocephaly, down-slanting palpebral fissures, malar hypoplasia and (probable) reduced elbow extension. Aortic dissection, a cardinal feature of Marfan syndrome, turned out to be the diagnostic key for the paleoradiological diagnosis of this disease. The demonstrated CT findings contribute to the spectrum of cardiovascular diseases and inherited connective tissue disease in the fields of paleopathology and paleoradiology.

The relationship of age, activity, and body size on osteoarthritis in weight-bearing skeletal regions

This study examined the simultaneous impact of multiple underlying factors on OA expression in weight-bearing joints of the vertebrae and lower limb of a modern European skeletal sample (Lisbon and Sassari). OA was evaluated using standard ranked categorical scoring; composite OA scores derived through principal component analysis. Body size was calculated from postcranial measurements; torsional strength (J) of the femoral midshaft was calculated from three-dimensional surface models, size standardized and used as a proxy for activity. A standard multiple regression was applied. In all regions, the linear combination of age, body mass, stature, and J was significantly related to differences in OA. Across all joints, age was the strongest predictor; neither body size, nor activity variables demonstrated a statistical relationship with OA at the lumbar or knee; J demonstrated a negative correlation with pelvic OA. Variation in OA can be explained by age, stature, body mass, and structural adaptation related to habitual use. The negative correlation between femoral torsional strength with OA suggests that long-term, repetitive physical work capacity in childhood may be protective against OA development later in life. The multifactorial aetiology of OA requires incorporating multiple lines of evidence to interpret individual or population health from bone samples.

Estimating body mass and composition from proximal femur dimensions using dual energy x-ray absorptiometry

Body mass prediction from the skeleton most commonly employs femoral head diameter (FHD). However, theoretical predictions and empirical data suggest the relationship between mass and FHD is strongest in young adults, that bone dimensions reflect lean mass better than body or fat mass and that other femoral measurements may be superior. Here, we generate prediction equations for body mass and its components using femoral head, neck and proximal shaft diameters and body composition data derived from dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans of young adults (n = 155, 77 females and 78 males, mean age 22.7 ± 1.3 years) from the Andhra Pradesh Children and Parents Study, Hyderabad, India. Sex-specific regression of log-transformed data on femoral measurements predicted lean mass with smaller standard errors of estimate (SEEs) than body mass (12-14% and 16-17% respectively), while none of the femoral measurements were significant predictors of fat mass. Subtrochanteric mediolateral shaft diameter gave lower SEEs for lean mass in both sexes and for body mass in males than FHD, while FHD was a better predictor of body mass in women. Our results provide further evidence that lean mass is more closely related to proximal femur dimensions than body or fat mass and that proximal shaft diameter is a better predictor than FHD of lean but not always body mass. The mechanisms underlying these relationships have implications for selecting the most appropriate measurement and reference sample for estimating body or lean mass, which also depend on the question under investigation.

Stature estimation equations for South Asian skeletons based on DXA scans of contemporary adults

OBJECTIVES

Stature estimation from the skeleton is a classic anthropological problem, and recent years have seen the proliferation of population-specific regression equations. Many rely on the anatomical reconstruction of stature from archaeological skeletons to derive regression equations based on long bone lengths, but this requires a collection with very good preservation. In some regions, for example, South Asia, typical environmental conditions preclude the sufficient preservation of skeletal remains. Large-scale epidemiological studies that include medical imaging of the skeleton by techniques such as dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) offer new potential datasets for developing such equations.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We derived estimation equations based on known height and bone lengths measured from DXA scans from the Andhra Pradesh Children and Parents Study (Hyderabad, India). Given debates on the most appropriate regression model to use, multiple methods were compared, and the performance of the equations was tested on a published skeletal dataset of individuals with known stature.

RESULTS

The equations have standard errors of estimates and prediction errors similar to those derived using anatomical reconstruction or from cadaveric datasets. As measured by the number of significant differences between true and estimated stature, and the prediction errors, the new equations perform as well as, and generally better than, published equations commonly used on South Asian skeletons or based on Indian cadaveric datasets.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates the utility of DXA scans as a data source for developing stature estimation equations and offer a new set of equations for use with South Asian datasets.

Persisting patterns of human height? Regional differences in living standards in the Early Middle Ages

öProximity to protein production' has recently been identified as an important determinant of regional variation of biological standards of living, as evidenced by average heights. The number of cows per person turned out to be a useful proxy where milk consumption had not been documented. Re-analyses of agricultural production and average male heights in early 19th-century central Europe show that indicators of agricultural suitability and potential for food production constructed from modern agro-ecological data are strongly correlated with historical agricultural specialisation. This paper uses a dataset of estimated heights and evidence on circumstances of the burial of about 2200 individuals who had lived in southwestern Germany during the 5th-8th centuries to assess the usefulness of modern proxy variables for explanations of regional differences in living standards in the distant past. Assuming some continuity in the relative suitability of smaller areas, the results suggest similar responses to environmental and climatic constraints, even though population density, agricultural technology, market integration, and consumption patterns of subsistence farming were very different from 19th-century conditions.

Relationship between body mass, lean mass, fat mass, and limb bone cross-sectional geometry: Implications for estimating body mass and physique from the skeleton

OBJECTIVES

Estimating body mass from skeletal dimensions is widely practiced, but methods for estimating its components (lean and fat mass) are poorly developed. The ability to estimate these characteristics would offer new insights into the evolution of body composition and its variation relative to past and present health. This study investigates the potential of long bone cross-sectional properties as predictors of body, lean, and fat mass.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Humerus, femur and tibia midshaft cross-sectional properties were measured by peripheral quantitative computed tomography in sample of young adult women (n = 105) characterized by a range of activity levels. Body composition was estimated from bioimpedance analysis.

RESULTS

Lean mass correlated most strongly with both upper and lower limb bone properties (r values up to 0.74), while fat mass showed weak correlations (r ≤ 0.29). Estimation equations generated from tibial midshaft properties indicated that lean mass could be estimated relatively reliably, with some improvement using logged data and including bone length in the models (minimum standard error of estimate = 8.9%). Body mass prediction was less reliable and fat mass only poorly predicted (standard errors of estimate ≥11.9% and >33%, respectively).

DISCUSSION

Lean mass can be predicted more reliably than body mass from limb bone cross-sectional properties. The results highlight the potential for studying evolutionary trends in lean mass from skeletal remains, and have implications for understanding the relationship between bone morphology and body mass or composition.

Rich table but short life: Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis in Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) and its possible consequences

The exhumation of Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) was performed in 2010 to verify speculative views on the cause of his death. Previous analyses of skeletal and hair remains recovered from his grave refuted the presumption that he died from poisoning. These studies also outlined the possibility that he actually died from an acute illness, echoing the rather vague and inaccurate testimony of some historical records. We performed a detailed paleopathological analysis of Tycho Brahe’s skeletal remains, along with a reconstruction of his diet based on carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes analysis and an estimate of his physical status (relative body fat) based on medullar and cortical dimensions of the femoral shaft. The astronomer’s remains exhibit bone changes indicative of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). The study further allows us to classify him as obese (100% reliability according to our decision tree designed from Danish males), and points out his rich diet (high input of animal protein and/or marine resources) and high social status. Comorbidities of DISH and obesity are reviewed, and their influence on health status is discussed. We further consider some conditions associated with metabolic syndrome as possible causes of Tycho Brahe’s final symptoms (urinary retention, renal failure and coma), including diabetes, alcoholic ketoacidosis and benign prostatic hypertrophy. Although a definite and specific diagnosis cannot be established, our study points to today’s civilization diseases often associated with DISH and metabolic syndrome as the possible cause of death of Tycho Brahe.

Diaphyseal cross-sectional geometry of the metatarsal bones in the Jomon population

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to investigate differences in the diaphyseal cross-sectional geometry (CSG) of the metatarsal bones (MTs) between two populations with different habitual activities: the Jomon hunter-gatherers and modern Japanese people.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We evaluated the first through fifth MTs of 117 skeleton samples: 59 (33 men and 26 women) were obtained from Late and Final Jomon period archeological sites and 58 (31 men and 27 women) were from modern Japanese people. CSG properties were calculated at the mid-shaft of the MTs and the relative values of the polar section modulus (Z_p ) of each second-to-fifth MTs to first MTs were calculated. These variables were compared according to population and sex.

RESULTS

Many of the CSG properties of MTs, except first MTs, were higher in the Jomon population than in the modern Japanese population for both sexes. Additionally, the relative values of the Z_p of the MTs were higher in Jomon men and women than in modern Japanese men and women. Moreover, the Jomon population had sex-based differences in the ratio of the shape of third MTs and fourth MTs and the relative MTs value. Jomon women had elliptical third MTs and fourth MTs, and the relative Z_p values of the third-to-fifth MTs to first MTs were higher in Jomon women than in Jomon men.

DISCUSSION

Our result suggests that the habitual activity of the Jomon population placed heavy loads on the forefoot. This finding possibly relates to mediolateral forefoot loading that appears to be related to traversing uneven terrain.

Assessing the accuracy of body mass estimation equations from pelvic and femoral variables among modern British women of known mass

Femoral head diameter is commonly used to estimate body mass from the skeleton. The three most frequently employed methods, designed by Ruff, Grine, and McHenry, were developed using different populations to address different research questions. They were not specifically designed for application to female remains, and their accuracy for this purpose has rarely been assessed or compared in living populations. This study analyzes the accuracy of these methods using a sample of modern British women through the use of pelvic CT scans (n = 97) and corresponding information about the individuals' known height and weight. Results showed that all methods provided reasonably accurate body mass estimates (average percent prediction errors under 20%) for the normal weight and overweight subsamples, but were inaccurate for the obese and underweight subsamples (average percent prediction errors over 20%). When women of all body mass categories were combined, the methods provided reasonable estimates (average percent prediction errors between 16 and 18%). The results demonstrate that different methods provide more accurate results within specific body mass index (BMI) ranges. The McHenry Equation provided the most accurate estimation for women of small body size, while the original Ruff Equation is most likely to be accurate if the individual was obese or severely obese. The refined Ruff Equation was the most accurate predictor of body mass on average for the entire sample, indicating that it should be utilized when there is no knowledge of the individual's body size or if the individual is assumed to be of a normal body size. The study also revealed a correlation between pubis length and body mass, and an equation for body mass estimation using pubis length was accurate in a dummy sample, suggesting that pubis length can also be used to acquire reliable body mass estimates. This has implications for how we interpret body mass in fossil hominins and has particular relevance to the interpretation of the long pubic ramus that is characteristic of Neandertals.

Lower limb articular scaling and body mass estimation in Pliocene and Pleistocene hominins

Previous attempts to estimate body mass in pre-Holocene hominins have relied on prediction equations derived from relatively limited extant samples. Here we derive new equations to predict body mass from femoral head breadth and proximal tibial plateau breadth based on a large and diverse sample of modern humans (avoiding the problems associated with using diaphyseal dimensions and/or cadaveric reference samples). In addition, an adjustment for the relatively small femoral heads of non-Homo taxa is developed based on observed differences in hip to knee joint scaling. Body mass is then estimated for 214 terminal Miocene through Pleistocene hominin specimens. Mean body masses for non-Homo taxa range between 39 and 49 kg (39-45 kg if sex-specific means are averaged), with no consistent temporal trend (6-1.85 Ma). Mean body mass increases in early Homo (2.04-1.77 Ma) to 55-59 kg, and then again dramatically in Homo erectus and later archaic middle Pleistocene Homo, to about 70 kg. The same average body mass is maintained in late Pleistocene archaic Homo and early anatomically modern humans through the early/middle Upper Paleolithic (0.024 Ma), only declining in the late Upper Paleolithic, with regional variation. Sexual dimorphism in body mass is greatest in Australopithecus afarensis (log[male/female] = 1.54), declines in Australopithecus africanus and Paranthropus robustus (log ratio 1.36), and then again in early Homo and middle and late Pleistocene archaic Homo (log ratio 1.20-1.27), although it remains somewhat elevated above that of living and middle/late Pleistocene anatomically modern humans (log ratio about 1.15).

Accuracy and Reliability of Total Body Mass Estimation Techniques from Stature and Bi-iliac Breadth in Non-Hispanic U.S. Whites from the Bass Donated Skeletal Collection

This paper tests the fidelity of a recent method that used the NHANES III dataset as a proxy to estimate total body mass from stature and bi-iliac breadth in U.S. White males and females. The bi-iliac breadths of 230 males and 152 females identified as non-Hispanic U.S. White from the Bass Donated Skeletal Collection were measured, and along with stature from predonor paperwork, total body mass estimates were calculated and then compared to body masses recorded on predonor paperwork. Male and female samples were subdivided by body mass index (BMI [kg/m² ]) categories established by the World Health Organization. Our results suggest that total body mass estimates can be accurately assessed provided that the individual is within 18.50 ≤ BMI ≤ 29.99 for White males and 18.50 ≤ BMI ≤ 24.99 for White females. Recommendations on how to report total body mass estimates are also presented.

Can we refine body mass estimations based on femoral head breadth?

Femoral head breadth is widely used in body mass estimation in biological anthropology. Earlier research has demonstrated that reduced major axis (RMA) equations perform better than least squares (LS) equations. Although a simple RMA equation to estimate body size from femoral head breadth is sufficient in most cases, our experiments with male skeletons from European data (including late Pleistocene and Holocene skeletal samples) and the Forensic Anthropology Data Bank data (including the W. M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection sample) show that including femoral length or anatomically estimated stature in an equation with femoral head breadth improves body mass estimation precision. More specifically, although directional bias related to body mass is not reduced within specific samples, the total estimation error range, directional bias related to stature, and temporal fluctuation in estimation error are markedly reduced. The overall body mass estimation precision of individuals representing different temporal periods and ancestry groups (e.g., African and European ancestry) is thus improved.

Body mass estimation from the skeleton: An evaluation of 11 methods

Estimating an individual body mass (BM) from the skeleton is a challenge for forensic anthropology. However, identifying someone's BMI (Body Mass Index) category, i.e. underweight, normal, overweight or obese, could contribute to identification. Individual BM is also known to influence the age-at-death estimation from the skeleton. Several methods are regularly used by both archaeologists and forensic practitioners to estimate individual BM. The most commonly used methods are based on femoral head breadth, or stature and bi-iliac breadth. However, those methods have been created from mean population BMs and are therefore meant to estimate the average BM of a population. Being that they are based on individual BM data and estimated femoral cortical areas, the newest published methods are supposed to be more accurate. We evaluated the accuracy and reliability of the most commonly used and most recent BM estimation methods (n=11) on a sample of 64 individuals. Both sexes and all BMI categories are represented, as well as a wide range of BM. Ages in this sample range from 20 to 87 years of age. Absolute and real differences between actual BM and estimated BM were assessed; they determined the accuracy for individual BM estimation and for average BM estimation of a population, respectively. The proportion of the sample whose estimated BM falls within ±10% and ±20% of their actual BM determines the reliability of the methods in our sample for, respectively, individual BM estimation and average BM of a population. The tested methods result in an absolute difference of 11kg-26kg±10kg with regards to prediction of individuals actual BM. The real differences are very variable from method to method, ranging from -14kg to 25kg. None of the tested methods is able to estimate BM of half of the sample within ±10% of their actual BM but most of them can estimate BM of more than half of the sample within ±20% of their actual BM. The errors increase with increasing BM, demonstrating a bias in all the methods. No bone variable tested correlated with BM. BMI categories were correctly predicted for less than 50% of the sample in most cases. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that the 11 methods tested are not suited for estimating individual BM or for predicting BMI categories. However, they are accurate and reliable enough for estimating the average BM of a population.

Regression equations for the estimation of stature and body mass using a Greek documented skeletal collection

Body size is an important variable in bioarchaeological and forensic studies, making the accurate calculation of stature and body mass imperative. Given that anatomical and morphometric approaches offer accurate results but require a particularly good preservation of the skeletal material, whereas mathematical and mechanical methods are more easily applicable but they are largely population-specific, the present paper uses a 'hybrid' approach in order to generate regression equations for the prediction of stature and body mass in a modern Greek sample. Specifically, anatomical and morphometric methods were used to calculate the stature and body mass of the individuals and regression equations using the Ordinary Least Squares and Reduced Major Axis methods were generated with long bone lengths and femoral head breadth as predictors. The obtained equations exhibit low random and directional error and perform better than existing equations designed using different samples from the United States, Europe, and the Balkans. Therefore, these equations are more appropriate for modern Greek material.

Prehistoric women's manual labor exceeded that of athletes through the first 5500 years of farming in Central Europe

The intensification of agriculture is often associated with declining mobility and bone strength through time, although women often exhibit less pronounced trends than men. For example, previous studies of prehistoric Central European agriculturalists (~5300 calibrated years BC to 850 AD) demonstrated a significant reduction in tibial rigidity among men, whereas women were characterized by low tibial rigidity, little temporal change, and high variability. Because of the potential for sex-specific skeletal responses to mechanical loading and a lack of modern comparative data, women's activity in prehistory remains difficult to interpret. This study compares humeral and tibial cross-sectional rigidity, shape, and interlimb loading among prehistoric Central European women agriculturalists and living European women of known behavior (athletes and controls). Prehistoric female tibial rigidity at all time periods was highly variable, but differed little from living sedentary women on average, and was significantly lower than that of living runners and football players. However, humeral rigidity exceeded that of living athletes for the first ~5500 years of farming, with loading intensity biased heavily toward the upper limb. Interlimb strength proportions among Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age women were most similar to those of living semi-elite rowers. These results suggest that, in contrast to men, rigorous manual labor was a more important component of prehistoric women's behavior than was terrestrial mobility through thousands of years of European agriculture, at levels far exceeding those of modern women.

An assessment of postcranial indices, ratios, and body mass versus eco-geographical variables of prehistoric Jomon, Yayoi agriculturalists, and Kumejima Islanders of Japan

OBJECTIVES

We explore variations in body and limb proportions of the Jomon hunter-gatherers (14,000-2500 BP), the Yayoi agriculturalists (2500-1700 BP) of Japan, and the Kumejima Islanders of the Ryukyus (1600-1800 AD) with 11 geographically diverse skeletal postcranial samples from Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia, and North America using brachial-crural indices, femur head-breadth-to-femur length ratio, femur head-breadth-to-lower-limb-length ratio, and body mass as indicators of phenotypic climatic adaptation. Specifically, we test the hypothesis that variation in limb proportions seen in Jomon, Yayoi, and Kumejima is a complex interaction of genetic adaptation; development and allometric constraints; selection, gene flow and genetic drift with changing cultural factors (i.e., nutrition) and climate.

METHODS

The skeletal data (1127 individuals) were subjected to principle components analysis, Manly's permutation multiple regression tests, and Relethford-Blangero analysis.

RESULTS

The results of Manly's tests indicate that body proportions and body mass are significantly correlated with latitude, and minimum and maximum temperatures while limb proportions were not significantly correlated with these climatic variables. Principal components plots separated "climatic zones:" tropical, temperate, and arctic populations. The indigenous Jomon showed cold-adapted body proportions and warm-adapted limb proportions. Kumejima showed cold-adapted body proportions and limbs. The Yayoi adhered to the Allen-Bergmann expectation of cold-adapted body and limb proportions. Relethford-Blangero analysis showed that Kumejima experienced gene flow indicated by high observed variances while Jomon experienced genetic drift indicated by low observed variances.

CONCLUSIONS

The complex interaction of evolutionary forces and development/nutritional constraints are implicated in the mismatch of limb and body proportions.

Social reorganization and biological change: An examination of stature variation among Iron Age Samnites from Abruzzo, central Italy

Stature is a sensitive indicator of overall environmental quality experienced during growth and development, and can provide insights on a population's 'well-being'. This study investigated changes in estimated adult stature in a large (N=568) sample of Samnite Iron Age (800-27 BCE) people from central Italy, during a period of increasing sociopolitical complexity. Stature was analyzed diachronically, between sexes, and across social strata inferred using the 'Status Index' based on funerary treatment. It was expected: 1) a decrease in stature from the Orientalizing-Archaic period (O-A) to the fifth century BC (V SEC) and the following Hellenistic period (ELL), due to population increase and urbanization; 2) social status to positively influence the attainment of the full stature potential; 3) sexual dimorphism to be higher in more stratified groups. Results revealed no significant diachronic changes in stature (females: O-A: 154.2cm,V SEC: 154.2cm, and ELL: 153.6cm; males: O-A: 165.0cm,V SEC: 165.2cm, and ELL: 165.0cm) or sexual dimorphism. High-status males were taller than low-status (p=0.021), possibly due to a better diet, but only in the Orientalizing-Archaic period. Nonsignificant changes in females suggest either differential access to resources in women, or a better buffering from environmental optima or crises. The results of this study highlight the complex interrelation between social factors and human growth, and stress the importance of understanding the specific mechanisms leading to variation in adult stature.

The befuddling nature of mouse lemur hands and feet at Bezà Mahafaly, SW Madagascar

The reddish-gray mouse lemur (Microcebus griseorufus) possesses striking phenotypic and behavioral variation. This project investigates differences in autopod proportions in neighboring populations of M. griseorufus from the Special Reserve at Bezà Mahafaly in southwest Madagascar. One population resides in an environment generally preferred by M. griseorufus-a spiny forest with large-trunked trees, vertically-oriented supports, and more open ground, while the other resides in a gallery forest with abundant small, often horizontal peripheral branches in high canopy. We demonstrate significant interpopulation differences in autopod morphophology despite no evidence of divergence in mitochondrial cytochrome b. We test two hypotheses regarding ultimate causation. The first, based on the Fine Branch Arborealism Hypothesis (FBAH), holds that autopod differences are related to different locomotor practices in the two environments, and the second, based on the Narrow Niche Hypothesis (NNH), holds that the observed differences reflect a relaxation (from ancestral to descendant conditions) of selective pressure for terrestrial locomotion and/or use of large, vertical supports combined with positive selection for locomoting in peripheral branch settings. Our data conform well to FBAH expectations and show some support for the NNH. Individuals from the gallery forest possess disproportionally long posterior digits that facilitate locomotion on small, flexible canopy supports while individuals from the spiny forest possess shorter posterior digits and a longer pollex/hallux that increase functional grasping diameter for large vertical supports and facilitate efficient ground locomotion. Focal individual data confirm differences in how often individuals descend to the ground and use vertical supports. We further show that predispersal juveniles, like adults, possess autopod morphologies suited to their natal forest. We explore two proximate mechanisms that could generate these cheiridial differences. The first posits an in vivo plastic response to different locomotor behaviors, the second posits differences that manifest in early development.

A matter of months: High precision migration chronology of a Bronze Age female

Establishing the age at which prehistoric individuals move away from their childhood residential location holds crucial information about the socio dynamics and mobility patterns in ancient societies. We present a novel combination of strontium isotope analyses performed on the over 3000 year old “Skrydstrup Woman” from Denmark, for whom we compiled a highly detailed month-scale model of her migration timeline. When combined with physical anthropological analyses this timeline can be related to the chronological age at which the residential location changed. We conducted a series of high-resolution strontium isotope analyses of hard and soft human tissues and combined these with anthropological investigations including CT-scanning and 3D visualizations. The Skrydstrup Woman lived during a pan-European period characterized by technical innovation and great social transformations stimulated by long-distance connections; consequently she represents an important part of both Danish and European prehistory. Our multidisciplinary study involves complementary biochemical, biomolecular and microscopy analyses of her scalp hair. Our results reveal that the Skrydstrup Woman was between 17–18 years old when she died, and that she moved from her place of origin -outside present day Denmark- to the Skrydstrup area in Denmark 47 to 42 months before she died. Hence, she was between 13 to 14 years old when she migrated to and resided in the area around Skrydstrup for the rest of her life. From an archaeological standpoint, this one-time and one-way movement of an elite female during the possible “age of marriageability” might suggest that she migrated with the aim of establishing an alliance between chiefdoms. Consequently, this detailed multidisciplinary investigation provides a novel tool to reconstruct high resolution chronology of individual mobility with the perspective of studying complex patterns of social and economic interaction in prehistory.

Inaccuracy and bias in adult skeletal age estimation: Assessing the reliability of eight methods on individuals of varying body sizes

Accurate age estimations are essential for identifying human skeletal remains and narrowing missing persons searches. This study examines how BMI, body mass, and stature influence inaccuracy and bias in adult skeletal age estimations obtained using eight methods. 746 skeletons from the Hamann-Todd and William Bass Collections were used. Underweight BMI, light body mass, and short-stature individuals have the most error associated with their age estimates and are consistently under-aged between 3 to 13years. Obese BMI, heavy body mass, and tall-stature individuals are consistently over-aged between 3 to 8.5years. The most reliable methods for smaller-bodied individuals are Kunos et al. (first rib) and Buckberry-Chamberlain (auricular surface); for individuals in the average range, İşcan et al. (fourth ribs) and Passalacqua (sacrum); and for larger-bodied individuals, İşcan et al., Passalacqua, and Rougé-Maillart et al. (auricular surface and acetabulum). Lovejoy et al. (auricular surface) and Suchey-Brooks (pubic symphysis) produce consistent inaccuracy and bias scores across all body size groups. The least reliable method for smaller-bodied individuals is İşcan et al.; for larger-bodied individuals, Buckberry-Chamberlain; and across all body size groups, DiGangi et al. (first rib).

Multidisciplinary Identification of the Controversial Freedom Fighter Jörg Jenatsch, Assassinated 1639 in Chur, Switzerland

Jörg Jenatsch, a leading freedom fighter during the Thirty Year’s War in Graubünden, Switzerland, was assassinated on carnival 1639. Jenatsch’s controversial biography and the unclear circumstances of his death inspired the formation of various legends, novels and films. In 1959, a skeleton discovered in the cathedral of Chur with remains of wealthy baroque clothing was tentatively attributed to Jenatsch. Here, we reassess the skeleton based on a new exhumation. Our multidisciplinary analysis and the head injuries are consistent with reports of the eyewitnesses of the crime, demonstrating that Jenatsch was killed from behind with a semi-sharp implement, supposedly an axe, as well as by a blow with a broad-surfaced object. Moreover, our facial reconstruction closely matches an oil portrait of Jenatsch, and the HIrisPlex system applied to DNA-extracts from the femoral bone reveals brown eye and dark brown hair colour, which coincides well with the portrait, too. Finally, isotope analysis of the femoral bone and a molar support Jenatsch’s high social status, luxury diet and a high mobility in the last decade of his life. This multidisciplinary approach thus reinforces personal identification and provides additional insight into the life of this important historic person beyond written resources.

Limb Bone Structural Proportions and Locomotor Behavior in A.L. 288-1 ("Lucy")

While there is broad agreement that early hominins practiced some form of terrestrial bipedality, there is also evidence that arboreal behavior remained a part of the locomotor repertoire in some taxa, and that bipedal locomotion may not have been identical to that of modern humans. It has been difficult to evaluate such evidence, however, because of the possibility that early hominins retained primitive traits (such as relatively long upper limbs) of little contemporaneous adaptive significance. Here we examine bone structural properties of the femur and humerus in the Australopithecus afarensis A.L. 288-1 ("Lucy", 3.2 Myr) that are known to be developmentally plastic, and compare them with other early hominins, modern humans, and modern chimpanzees. Cross-sectional images were obtained from micro-CT scans of the original specimens and used to derive section properties of the diaphyses, as well as superior and inferior cortical thicknesses of the femoral neck. A.L. 288-1 shows femoral/humeral diaphyseal strength proportions that are intermediate between those of modern humans and chimpanzees, indicating more mechanical loading of the forelimb than in modern humans, and by implication, a significant arboreal locomotor component. Several features of the proximal femur in A.L. 288-1 and other australopiths, including relative femoral head size, distribution of cortical bone in the femoral neck, and cross-sectional shape of the proximal shaft, support the inference of a bipedal gait pattern that differed slightly from that of modern humans, involving more lateral deviation of the body center of mass over the support limb, which would have entailed increased cost of terrestrial locomotion. There is also evidence consistent with increased muscular strength among australopiths in both the forelimb and hind limb, possibly reflecting metabolic trade-offs between muscle and brain development during hominin evolution. Together these findings imply significant differences in both locomotor behavior and ecology between australopiths and later Homo.

Morphological features of the fibula in Jomon hunter-gatherers from the shell mounds of the Pacific coastal area

OBJECTIVE

The Jomon, one of the ancestral populations of modern Japanese, were hunter-gatherers inhabiting the Japanese archipelago from 11,000 to 300 BC. We evaluated changes in the diaphyseal morphology of the fibula from the middle to the final phase of the Jomon period, compared to the morphology of other historical and modern populations from the Japanese archipelago, to elucidate temporal changes in habitual activities and possible division of labor among males and females.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Jomon specimens of 107 males and 97 females were obtained from the shell mounds of the Pacific coastal area of East Japan, distinguishing between middle (3,000-2,000 BC) and late-final (2,000-300 BC) phases of the Jomon period. Mid-shaft morphology of the fibula and tibia were compared to morphological measurements of specimens from Yayoi (37 males, 28 females), medieval (56 males, 56 females), early modern (51 males, 50 females), and modern (125 males, 68 females) periods.

RESULT

Largest values of fibular areas and relative fibular-to-tibial areas were identified in males from the late-final Jomon phase, compared to the middle Jomon phase and after the Yayoi period. These period-specific differences in fibular area were smaller in females, with the largest between-sex difference identified in the late-final Jomon phase.

DISCUSSION

Results confirm a change in the habitual activity pattern of males in the late-final phase. Males of the late-final Jomon phase likely did more long-distance traveling to the inland/mountainous region, as part of an ecological change that occurred during the middle to the late-final Jomon phase. Am J Phys Anthropol 160:708-718, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Selecting best-fit models for estimating the body mass from 3D data of the human calcaneus

Body mass (BM) estimation could facilitate the interpretation of skeletal materials in terms of the individual's body size and physique in forensic anthropology. However, few metric studies have tried to estimate BM by focusing on prominent biomechanical properties of the calcaneus. The purpose of this study was to prepare best-fit models for estimating BM from the 3D human calcaneus by two major linear regression analysis (the heuristic statistical and all-possible-regressions techniques) and validate the models through predicted residual sum of squares (PRESS) statistics. A metric analysis was conducted based on 70 human calcaneus samples (29 males and 41 females) taken from 3D models in the Digital Korean Database and 10 variables were measured for each sample. Three best-fit models were postulated by F-statistics, Mallows' Cp, and Akaike information criterion (AIC) and Bayes information criterion (BIC) for each available candidate models. Finally, the most accurate regression model yields lowest %SEE and 0.843 of R(2). Through the application of leave-one-out cross validation, the predictive power was indicated a high level of validation accuracy. This study also confirms that the equations for estimating BM using 3D models of human calcaneus will be helpful to establish identification in forensic cases with consistent reliability.

Early Life Conditions and Physiological Stress following the Transition to Farming in Central/Southeast Europe: Skeletal Growth Impairment and 6000 Years of Gradual Recovery

Early life conditions play an important role in determining adult body size. In particular, childhood malnutrition and disease can elicit growth delays and affect adult body size if severe or prolonged enough. In the earliest stages of farming, skeletal growth impairment and small adult body size are often documented relative to hunter-gatherer groups, though this pattern is regionally variable. In Central/Southeast Europe, it is unclear how early life stress, growth history, and adult body size were impacted by the introduction of agriculture and ensuing long-term demographic, social, and behavioral change. The current study assesses this impact through the reconstruction and analysis of mean stature, body mass, limb proportion indices, and sexual dimorphism among 407 skeletally mature men and women from foraging and farming populations spanning the Late Mesolithic through Early Medieval periods in Central/Southeast Europe (~7100 calBC to 850 AD). Results document significantly reduced mean stature, body mass, and crural index in Neolithic agriculturalists relative both to Late Mesolithic hunter-gatherer-fishers and to later farming populations. This indication of relative growth impairment in the Neolithic, particularly among women, is supported by existing evidence of high developmental stress, intensive physical activity, and variable access to animal protein in these early agricultural populations. Among subsequent agriculturalists, temporal increases in mean stature, body mass, and crural index were more pronounced among Central European women, driving declines in the magnitude of sexual dimorphism through time. Overall, results suggest that the transition to agriculture in Central/Southeast Europe was challenging for early farming populations, but was followed by gradual amelioration across thousands of years, particularly among Central European women. This sex difference may be indicative, in part, of greater temporal variation in the social status afforded to young girls, in their access to resources during growth, and/or in their health status than was experienced by men.

The impact of subsistence changes on humeral bilateral asymmetry in Terminal Pleistocene and Holocene Europe

Analyses of upper limb bone bilateral asymmetry can shed light on manipulative behavior, sexual division of labor, and the effects of economic transitions on skeletal morphology. We compared the maximum (absolute) and directional asymmetry in humeral length, articular breadth, and cross-sectional diaphyseal geometry (CSG) in a large (n > 1200) European sample distributed among 11 archaeological periods from the Early Upper Paleolithic through the 20(th) century. Asymmetry in length and articular breadth is right-biased, but relatively small and fairly constant between temporal periods. Females show more asymmetry in length than males. This suggests a low impact of behavioral changes on asymmetry in length and breadth, but strong genetic control with probable sex linkage of asymmetry in length. Asymmetry in CSG properties is much more marked than in length and articular breadth, with sex-specific variation. In males, a major decline in asymmetry occurs between the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic. There is no further decline in asymmetry between the Mesolithic and Neolithic in males and only limited variation during the Holocene. In females, a major decline occurs between the Mesolithic and Neolithic, with resulting average directional asymmetry close to zero. Asymmetry among females continues to be very low in the subsequent Copper and Bronze Ages, but increases again in the Iron Age. Changes in female asymmetry result in an increase of sexual dimorphism during the early agricultural periods, followed by a decrease in the Iron Age. Sexual dimorphism again slightly declines after the Late Medieval. Our results indicate that changes in manipulative behavior were sex-specific with a probable higher impact of changes in hunting behavior on male asymmetry (e.g., shift from unimanual throwing to use of the bow-and-arrow) and food grain processing in females, specifically, use of two-handed saddle querns in the early agricultural periods and one-handed rotary querns in later agricultural periods.

Evaluating the efficiency of different recording protocols for entheseal changes in regards to expressing activity patterns using archival data and cross-sectional geometric properties

OBJECTIVES

In the past decade there have been extensive discussions on the potential utility of entheseal changes (EC) as activity markers. Nevertheless, no study to date has compared different EC recording protocols with respect to their correlation to activity patterns.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This article records changes on fibrocartilaginous entheses of the upper limbs of 90 male skeletons from the documented Athens Collection using the Hawkey and Merbs (Int J Osteoarchaeol 5 (1995) 324-338), Mariotti et al. (Collegium Antropol 28 (2004) 145-159), and Villotte et al. (Am J Phys Anthropol 142 (2010) 224-234) recording schemes in order to determine which one exhibits the highest correlation with activity. Activity is assessed by means of the recorded profession of each individual, as well as employing cross-sectional geometric properties. Generalized Linear Models are used to explore the impact of age, body mass, and activity on EC expression.

RESULTS

Our results agree with previous studies that age is the primary factor determining EC, whereas body mass is the second most influential factor. In contrast, activity in the form of profession or cross-sectional geometry rarely showed a significant correlation to EC expression and no clear pattern could be discerned irrespective of the recording technique. However, bilateral differences in the impact of age and body mass in EC expression were traced and may relate to activity patterns.

CONCLUSIONS

The differences found in the bilateral impact of age and body mass highlight the fact that the activity patterns of the individuals under examination must play an underlying role to EC expression, though current recording schemes for EC do not capture this, rendering further work in the direction of developing more elaborate recording standards imperative.