Early maladaptive schemas, temperament and character traits in clinically depressed and previously depressed subjects

A meta-analysis of temperament in axis I psychiatric disorders

This article reports on a meta-analysis of Cloninger's temperament dimensions (novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, and persistence) in individuals with lifetime psychiatric disorders compared with controls and on interdisorder comparisons between these disorders. Nine disorders from 75 studies were included in the meta-analyses. The most consistent feature was elevated harm avoidance: compared with the controls, harm avoidance was higher in all diagnostic groups studied except for those with alcohol use disorders. The increase in effect sizes in harm avoidance scores varied from a very large (d = 2.66) in social phobia to a small effect (effect size, d = 0.29) in alcohol use disorders. In other dimensions, differences between cases and controls were relatively small. However, in pairwise comparisons, notable differences also in other dimensions emerged: in novelty seeking, the lowest scores were in social phobia (d = -0.87) and the highest in bulimia nervosa (d = 0.33); in reward dependence, the lowest scores were in schizophrenia (d = -0.36) and the highest in social phobia (d = 0.12); and in persistence, the lowest scores were in social phobia (d = -0.30) and the highest in anorexia nervosa (d = 0.49). The provided data should be taken into account in the future studies on suggestive vulnerability markers for psychiatric morbidity.

Does Personality Predict Depression and Use of an Internet-Based Intervention for Depression among Adolescents?

Background. Focus upon depression and prevention of its occurrence among adolescents is increasing. Novel ways of dealing with this serious problem have become available especially by means of internet-based prevention and treatment programs of depression and anxiety. The use of Internet-based intervention programs among adolescents has revealed some difficulties in implementation that need to be further elucidated. The aim of this study is to investigate the association between personality and adolescent depression and the characteristics of users of an Internet-based intervention program. Method. The Junior Temperament and Character Inventory (JTCI), the General Self-Efficacy scale (GSE) and the Centre for Epidemiological Studies-Depression scale (CES-D) have been administered to a sample (n = 1234) of Norwegian senior high-school students. Results. Multiple regression analysis revealed associations between depression and gender, and several JTCI domains and facets. In line with previous findings in adults, high Harm Avoidance and low Self-Directedness emerged as the strongest predictors of adolescent depressive symptoms. Further, in logistic regression analysis with the covariates JTCI, GSE and CES-D, the only significant variables predicting use/non-use were the CES-D and the temperament domain Reward Dependence. Conclusion. The results in this study revealed level of depressive symptoms as the strongest predictor of the use of the Internet based intervention and that personality might provide useful information about the users.

Verbal learning and memory in depression: a 9-year follow-up study

Memory impairment is often associated with depression. However, the literature is not uniform whether such impairment constitutes state and/or trait characteristics. One-hundred-and-twelve clinically depressed (CDs), previously depressed (PDs), and never depressed (NDs) subjects (T2 diagnostic status),were assessed with the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) at T1 and re-assessed 9 years later with the revised version, CVLT-II. At T1 no deficit in verbal memory between CDs and PDs compared to NDs was found, in which the majority of the subjects were younger adults. At follow-up the majority of CDs and PDs had suffered one or several recurrent depressive episodes. Repeated-measures analysis of variance showed, in particular and irrespective of group, a significant decline in recall measures over time. CDs, PDs and NDs showed the same pattern of verbal memory performance over time with the exception of Short Delayed Free Recall, in which CDs and PDs showed a significant decline in performance at follow-up compared to NDs. Likewise, subjects with recurrent depression performed comparable to subjects with a single episode over the course of follow-up. Our results suggest that individuals with mild to moderate unipolar depression may not be significantly affected by verbal memory impairments over the long-term course. The comparability of the versions of the CVLT is addressed.

[Influence between early maladaptive schemas and depression]

INTRODUCTION

Early maladaptive schemas developed during childhood are relatively stable. Once activated, these early maladaptive schemas could influence reality perceptions and create cognitive distortions. Previous studies showed that early maladaptive schemas are linked to depression: early maladaptive schemas could be a risk factor for depression (Young, 2001) and a vulnerability marker for depression (Dozoïs, 2007).

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of the present study was to explore the influence of early maladaptive schemas on depression severity among a French adult population.

METHOD

One hundred and sixty-two participants (mean age 29 years; SD=13.86) were enrolled, 66 men (mean age 29 years; SD=13.65) and 106 women (mean age 30; SD=14.07). Participants were invited to complete the Young Schema Questionnaire, short version (YSQ-S1-Young 1994) and the Beck depression Inventory, 2nd version (BDI-II-Beck 1994). Fifty-six participants were randomly selected to complete a paper version of the scales, and 95 participants completed an online electronic version.

RESULTS

Fifty-two percent of the participants were not depressed, 15% slightly depressed, 17% moderately depressed and 16% met criteria of severe depression. All 15 schemas scores were positively correlated to depression scores. Comparing schema scores and depression severity it can be noted that for severely depressed participants all schema scores were significantly higher, and six of 15 schemas were significantly higher in the case of moderate depression. In addition, three schemas (imperfection, vulnerability, fusional relation) are significantly and positively linked to depression scores, whereas one schema (everything is owed to me) appears to be a significantly negative predictor of associated depression.

CONCLUSION

This study confirms results of previous research concerning the link between early maladaptive schemas and depression. What is more, the results show that the importance of these schemas increases with depression severity. The most important variation was found on schemas concerning interpersonal relationships like "abandonment" or "social insulation and social exclusion" as well as schemas related to personal competence as for example "failure" or "dependence and incompetence". Further research will be necessary to explore the role of depression as an activator or/and by reinforcing early maladaptive schemas.

Absorbed in the task: Personality measures predict engagement during task performance as tracked by error negativity and asymmetrical frontal activity

We hypothesized that interactions between traits and context predict task engagement, as measured by the amplitude of the error-related negativity (ERN), performance, and relative frontal activity asymmetry (RFA). In Study 1, we found that drive for reward, absorption, and constraint independently predicted self-reported persistence. We hypothesized that, during a prolonged monotonous task, absorption would predict initial ERN amplitudes, constraint would delay declines in ERN amplitudes and deterioration of performance, and drive for reward would predict left RFA when a reward could be obtained. Study 2, employing EEG recordings, confirmed our predictions. The results showed that most traits that have in previous research been related to ERN amplitudes have a relationship with the motivational trait persistence in common. In addition, trait-context combinations that are likely associated with increased engagement predict larger ERN amplitudes and RFA. Together, these results support the hypothesis that engagement may be a common underlying factor predicting ERN amplitude.

Basic emotion profiles in healthy, chronic pain, depressed and PTSD individuals

OBJECTIVES

To compare self-reports of five basic emotions across four samples: healthy, chronic pain, depressed and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and to investigate the extent to which basic emotion reports discriminate between individuals in healthy or clinical groups.

METHODS

In total, 439 participants took part in this study: healthy (n = 131), chronic pain (n = 220), depressed (n = 24) and PTSD (n = 64). The participants completed the trait version of the Basic Emotion Scale. Basic emotion profiles were compared both within each group and between the healthy group and each of the three other groups. Discriminant analysis was used to assess the extent to which basic emotions can be used to classify the participants as belonging to the healthy group or one of the clinical groups.

RESULTS

In the healthy group, happiness was experienced more than any other basic emotion. This was not found in the clinical groups. In comparison to the healthy participants, the chronic pain group experienced more fear, anger and sadness, the depressed group reported more sadness and the PTSD group experienced all of the negative emotions more frequently. Discriminant analysis revealed that happiness was the most important variable in determining whether an individual belonged to the healthy group or one of the clinical groups. Anger was found to further discriminate between depressed and chronic pain individuals.

CONCLUSION

The findings demonstrate that basic emotion profile analysis can provide a useful foundation for the exploration of emotional experience both within and between healthy and clinical groups. 

Personality Profiles Identify Depressive Symptoms over Ten Years? A Population-Based Study

Little is known about the relationship between temperament and character inventory (TCI) profiles and depressive symptoms. Personality profiles are useful, because personality traits may have different effects on depressive symptoms when combined with different combinations of other traits. Participants were from the population-based Young Finns study with repeated measurements in 1997, 2001, and 2007 (n = 1402 to 1902). TCI was administered in 1997 and mild depressive symptoms (modified Beck's depression inventory, BDI) were reported in 1997, 2001, and 2007. BDI-II was also administered in 2007. We found that high harm avoidance and low self-directedness related strongly to depressive symptoms. In addition, sensitive (NHR) and fanatical people (ScT) were especially vulnerable to depressive symptoms. high novelty seeking and reward dependence increased depressive symptoms when harm avoidance was high. These associations were very similar in cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis. Personality profiles help in understanding the complex associations between depressive symptoms and personality.

The effects of temperament and character on symptoms of depression in a chinese nonclinical population

Objective. To examine the relations between personality traits and syndromes of depression in a nonclinical Chinese population. Method. We recruited 469 nonclinical participants in China. They completed the Chinese version temperament and character inventory (TCI) and self-rating depression scale (SDS). A structural equation model was used to rate the relation between seven TCI scales and the three SDS subscale scores (based on Shafer's meta-analysis of the SDS items factor analyses). This was based on the assumption that the three depression subscales would be predicted by the temperament and character subscales, whereas the character subscales would be predicted by the temperament subscales. Results. The positive symptoms scores were predicted by low self-directedness (SD), cooperativeness (C), reward dependence (RD), and persistence (P) as well as older age. The negative symptoms scores were predicted only by an older age. The somatic symptoms scores were predicted by high SD. Conclusion. Syndromes of depression are differentially associated with temperament and character patterns. It was mainly the positive symptoms scores that were predicted by the TCI scores. The effects of harm avoidance (HA) on the positive symptoms scores could be mediated by low SD and C.

Schema Theory and Schema Therapy in Mood and Anxiety Disorders: A Review

Schema theory was developed for patients with chronic psychological problems who fail to make significant gains in cognitive therapy. Although the theory has been applied most frequently to personality disorders, mood and anxiety disorders may also be a relevant application. This article reviews the literature applying schema theory to mood and anxiety disorders. The literature suggests that people with mood and anxiety disorders present high levels of early maladaptive schemas, some of which would appear to reflect the characteristics of the individual disorders. Preliminary research suggests that schema therapy may be successfully extended to mood and anxiety disorders. Further research is necessary to examine the utility of schema therapy for these clienteles and to identify the individuals who stand to benefit most.

Personality and early maladaptive schemas: a five-factor model perspective

According to Young's schema model (Young, J. E., Klosko, J. S., & Weishaar, M. E. (2003). Schema therapy: A practitioner's guide. New York: Guilford Press), innate personality tendencies are important for the understanding of early maladaptive schemas (EMS). The current study examined the relations between EMS and the dimensions of the five-factor model of personality (FFM). One hundred and forty-seven adult outpatients completed the NEO PI-R, the Schema Questionnaire-Short Form (SQ-SF), and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Correlational analyses showed a substantial overlap between EMS and the FFM, neuroticism in particular. EMS predicted depressive symptoms above and beyond the FFM personality dimensions. Implications of these findings are discussed.

The spiritual brain: selective cortical lesions modulate human self-transcendence

The predisposition of human beings toward spiritual feeling, thinking, and behaviors is measured by a supposedly stable personality trait called self-transcendence. Although a few neuroimaging studies suggest that neural activation of a large fronto-parieto-temporal network may underpin a variety of spiritual experiences, information on the causative link between such a network and spirituality is lacking. Combining pre- and post-neurosurgery personality assessment with advanced brain-lesion mapping techniques, we found that selective damage to left and right inferior posterior parietal regions induced a specific increase of self-transcendence. Therefore, modifications of neural activity in temporoparietal areas may induce unusually fast modulations of a stable personality trait related to transcendental self-referential awareness. These results hint at the active, crucial role of left and right parietal systems in determining self-transcendence and cast new light on the neurobiological bases of altered spiritual and religious attitudes and behaviors in neurological and mental disorders.