HERV-K(HML-2) GAG/ENV antibodies as indicator for therapy effect in patients with germ cell tumors

Detection of T lymphocytes specific for human endogenous retrovirus K (HERV-K) in patients with seminoma

Human endogenous retrovirus K (HERV-K) is distinctive among the retroviruses that comprise about 8% of the human genome in that multiple HERV-K proviruses encode full-length viral proteins, and many HERV-K proviruses formed during recent human evolution. HERV-K gag proteins are found in the cytoplasm of primary tumor cells of patients with seminoma. We identified HERV-K-specific T cells in patients with a past history of seminoma using the interferon-gamma ELISPOT assay and an MHC-HERV-K peptide-specific tetramer. A minority of apparently healthy subjects without evident germ cell tumors also made HERV-K-specific T cell responses. In summary, we detected T cell reactivity to HERV-K peptides in both past seminoma patients and a minority of apparently healthy controls.

Causes and consequences of DNA hypomethylation in human cancer

While specific genes are hypermethylated in the genome of cancer cells, overall methylcytosine content is often decreased as a consequence of hypomethylation affecting many repetitive sequences. Hypomethylation is also observed at a number of single-copy genes. While global hypomethylation is highly prevalent across all cancer types, it often displays considerable specificity with regard to tumor type, tumor stage, and sequences affected. Following an overview of hypomethylation alterations in various cancers, this review focuses on 3 hypotheses. First, hypomethylation at a single-copy gene may occur as a 2-step process, in which selection for gene function follows upon random hypo methylation. In this fashion, hypomethylation facilitates the adaptation of cancer cells to the ever-changing tumor tissue microenvironment, particularly during metastasis. Second, the development of global hypomethylation is intimately linked to chromatin restructuring and nuclear disorganization in cancer cells, reflected in a large number of changes in histone-modifying enzymes and other chromatin regulators. Third, DNA hypomethylation may occur at least partly as a consequence of cell cycle deregulation disturbing the coordination between DNA replication and activity of DNA methyltransferases. Finally, because of their relation to tumor progression and metastasis, DNA hypomethylation markers may be particularly useful to classify cancer and predict their clinical course.

Genomewide screening reveals high levels of insertional polymorphism in the human endogenous retrovirus family HERV-K(HML2): implications for present-day activity

The published human genome sequence contains many thousands of endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) but all are defective, containing nonsense mutations or major deletions. Only the HERV-K(HML2) family has been active since the divergence of humans and chimpanzees; it contains many members that are human specific, as well as several that are insertionally polymorphic (an inserted element present only in some human individuals). Here we perform a genomewide survey of insertional polymorphism levels in this family by using the published human genome sequence and a diverse sample of 19 humans. We find that there are 113 human-specific HERV-K(HML2) elements in the human genome sequence, 8 of which are insertionally polymorphic (11 if we extrapolate to those within regions of the genome that were not suitable for amplification). The average rate of accumulation since the divergence with chimpanzees is thus approximately 3.8 x 10(-4) per haploid genome per generation. Furthermore, we find that the number of polymorphic elements is not significantly different from that predicted by a standard population genetic model that assumes constant activity of the family until the present. This suggests to us that the HERV-K(HML2) family may be active in present-day humans. Active (replication-competent) elements are likely to have inserted very recently and to be present at low allele frequencies, and they may be causing disease in the individuals carrying them. This view of the family from a population perspective rather than a genome perspective will inform the current debate about a possible role of HERV-K(HML2) in human disease.