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Wingler K, Hermans JJR, Schiffers P, Moens A, Paul M, Schmidt HHHW. NOX1, 2, 4, 5: counting out oxidative stress. Br J Pharmacol 2012; 164:866-83. [PMID: 21323893 PMCID: PMC3195911 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01249.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
For decades, oxidative stress has been discussed as a key mechanism of endothelial dysfunction and cardiovascular disease. However, attempts to validate and exploit this hypothesis clinically by supplementing antioxidants have failed. Nevertheless, this does not disprove the oxidative stress hypothesis. As a certain degree of reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation appears to be physiological and beneficial. To reduce oxidative stress therapeutically, two alternative approaches are being developed. One is the repair of key signalling components that are compromised by oxidative stress. These include uncoupled endothelial nitric oxide (NO) synthase and oxidized/heme-free NO receptor soluble guanylate cyclase. A second approach is to identify and effectively inhibit the relevant source(s) of ROS in a given disease condition. A highly likely target in this context is the family of NADPH oxidases. Animal models, including NOX knockout mice and new pharmacological inhibitors of NADPH oxidases have opened up a new era of oxidative stress research and have paved the way for new cardiovascular therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Wingler
- Department of Pharmacology & Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
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Srinivasan V, Spence DW, Pandi-Perumal SR, Brown GM, Cardinali DP. Melatonin in mitochondrial dysfunction and related disorders. Int J Alzheimers Dis 2011; 2011:326320. [PMID: 21629741 PMCID: PMC3100547 DOI: 10.4061/2011/326320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2010] [Accepted: 03/02/2011] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction is considered one of the major causative factors in the aging process, ischemia/reperfusion (I/R), septic shock, and neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson's disease (PD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), and Huntington's disease (HD). Increased free radical generation, enhanced mitochondrial inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase activity, enhanced NO production, decreased respiratory complex activity, impaired electron transport system, and opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pore all have been suggested as factors responsible for impaired mitochondrial function. Melatonin, the major hormone of the pineal gland, also acts as an antioxidant and as a regulator of mitochondrial bioenergetic function. Both in vitro and in vivo, melatonin was effective for preventing oxidative stress/nitrosative stress-induced mitochondrial dysfunction seen in experimental models of PD, AD, and HD. In addition, melatonin is known to retard aging and to inhibit the lethal effects of septic shock or I/R lesions by maintaining respiratory complex activities, electron transport chain, and ATP production in mitochondria. Melatonin is selectively taken up by mitochondrial membranes, a function not shared by other antioxidants. Melatonin has thus emerged as a major potential therapeutic tool for treating neurodegenerative disorders such as PD or AD, and for preventing the lethal effects of septic shock or I/R.
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Affiliation(s)
- Venkatramanujam Srinivasan
- Sri Sathya Sai Medical, Educational and Research Foundation, Prashanthi Nilayam 40, Kovai Thirunagar Coimbatore 641014, India
| | | | | | - Gregory M. Brown
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 250 College Street, Toronto, ON, Canada M5T 1R8
| | - Daniel P. Cardinali
- Departamento de Docencia e Investigación, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica Argentina, Avenida Alicia Moreau de Justo 1500, 4 Piso, 1107 Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, 1121 Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Kleinschnitz C, Grund H, Wingler K, Armitage ME, Jones E, Mittal M, Barit D, Schwarz T, Geis C, Kraft P, Barthel K, Schuhmann MK, Herrmann AM, Meuth SG, Stoll G, Meurer S, Schrewe A, Becker L, Gailus-Durner V, Fuchs H, Klopstock T, de Angelis MH, Jandeleit-Dahm K, Shah AM, Weissmann N, Schmidt HHHW. Post-stroke inhibition of induced NADPH oxidase type 4 prevents oxidative stress and neurodegeneration. PLoS Biol 2010; 8. [PMID: 20877715 PMCID: PMC2943442 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 337] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2010] [Accepted: 07/28/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Ischemic stroke is the second leading cause of death worldwide. Only one moderately effective therapy exists, albeit with contraindications that exclude 90% of the patients. This medical need contrasts with a high failure rate of more than 1,000 pre-clinical drug candidates for stroke therapies. Thus, there is a need for translatable mechanisms of neuroprotection and more rigid thresholds of relevance in pre-clinical stroke models. One such candidate mechanism is oxidative stress. However, antioxidant approaches have failed in clinical trials, and the significant sources of oxidative stress in stroke are unknown. We here identify NADPH oxidase type 4 (NOX4) as a major source of oxidative stress and an effective therapeutic target in acute stroke. Upon ischemia, NOX4 was induced in human and mouse brain. Mice deficient in NOX4 (Nox4(-/-)) of either sex, but not those deficient for NOX1 or NOX2, were largely protected from oxidative stress, blood-brain-barrier leakage, and neuronal apoptosis, after both transient and permanent cerebral ischemia. This effect was independent of age, as elderly mice were equally protected. Restoration of oxidative stress reversed the stroke-protective phenotype in Nox4(-/-) mice. Application of the only validated low-molecular-weight pharmacological NADPH oxidase inhibitor, VAS2870, several hours after ischemia was as protective as deleting NOX4. The extent of neuroprotection was exceptional, resulting in significantly improved long-term neurological functions and reduced mortality. NOX4 therefore represents a major source of oxidative stress and novel class of drug target for stroke therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Kleinschnitz
- Neurologische Klinik und Poliklinik, Universität Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- * E-mail: (HHHWS); (CK)
| | - Henrike Grund
- Rudolf-Buchheim-Institut für Pharmakologie & Medizinische Klinik, Justus-Liebig-Universität, Gießen, Germany
| | - Kirstin Wingler
- Rudolf-Buchheim-Institut für Pharmakologie & Medizinische Klinik, Justus-Liebig-Universität, Gießen, Germany
- Department of Pharmacology and Centre for Vascular Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology and Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht University, The Netherlands
- National Stroke Research Institute, Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Melanie E. Armitage
- Department of Pharmacology and Centre for Vascular Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- National Stroke Research Institute, Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Emma Jones
- Department of Pharmacology and Centre for Vascular Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Manish Mittal
- Rudolf-Buchheim-Institut für Pharmakologie & Medizinische Klinik, Justus-Liebig-Universität, Gießen, Germany
| | - David Barit
- Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation (JDRF) International Center for Diabetic Complications Research, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Tobias Schwarz
- Neurologische Klinik und Poliklinik, Universität Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Christian Geis
- Neurologische Klinik und Poliklinik, Universität Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Peter Kraft
- Neurologische Klinik und Poliklinik, Universität Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Konstanze Barthel
- Abteilung Neurologie, Georg-August Universität Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael K. Schuhmann
- Neurologische Klinik und Poliklinik, Universität Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- Universitätsklinik Münster, Klinik und Poliklinik für Neurologie—Entzündliche Erkrankungen des Nervensystems und Neuroonkologie, Münster, Germany
| | - Alexander M. Herrmann
- Neurologische Klinik und Poliklinik, Universität Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- Universitätsklinik Münster, Klinik und Poliklinik für Neurologie—Entzündliche Erkrankungen des Nervensystems und Neuroonkologie, Münster, Germany
| | - Sven G. Meuth
- Neurologische Klinik und Poliklinik, Universität Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- Universitätsklinik Münster, Klinik und Poliklinik für Neurologie—Entzündliche Erkrankungen des Nervensystems und Neuroonkologie, Münster, Germany
| | - Guido Stoll
- Neurologische Klinik und Poliklinik, Universität Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sabine Meurer
- Department of Pharmacology and Centre for Vascular Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Anja Schrewe
- Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, München, Germany
| | - Lore Becker
- Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, München, Germany
- Friedrich-Baur-Institut an der Neurologischen Klinik, Klinikum der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, München, Germany
| | - Valérie Gailus-Durner
- Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, München, Germany
| | - Helmut Fuchs
- Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, München, Germany
| | - Thomas Klopstock
- Friedrich-Baur-Institut an der Neurologischen Klinik, Klinikum der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, München, Germany
| | - Martin Hrabé de Angelis
- Institute of Experimental Genetics, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, München, Germany
- Lehrstuhl für Experimentelle Genetik, Technische Universität München, Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany
| | - Karin Jandeleit-Dahm
- Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation (JDRF) International Center for Diabetic Complications Research, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Ajay M. Shah
- King's College London School of Medicine, The James Black Centre, Cardiovascular Division, London, United Kingdom
| | - Norbert Weissmann
- Rudolf-Buchheim-Institut für Pharmakologie & Medizinische Klinik, Justus-Liebig-Universität, Gießen, Germany
| | - Harald H. H. W. Schmidt
- Rudolf-Buchheim-Institut für Pharmakologie & Medizinische Klinik, Justus-Liebig-Universität, Gießen, Germany
- Department of Pharmacology and Centre for Vascular Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology and Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht University, The Netherlands
- National Stroke Research Institute, Florey Neuroscience Institutes, Melbourne, Australia
- * E-mail: (HHHWS); (CK)
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Murotomi K, Takagi N, Mizutani R, Honda TA, Ono M, Takeo S, Tanonaka K. mGluR1 antagonist decreased NADPH oxidase activity and superoxide production after transient focal cerebral ischemia. J Neurochem 2010; 114:1711-9. [PMID: 20598019 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.06882.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
NADPH oxidase, which is activated by PKC and signaling via the NMDA receptor, is one of the crucial enzymes for superoxide production in the CNS. We showed earlier that the metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 (mGluR1) plays an important role in the activation of PKC and tyrosine phosphorylation of the NMDA receptor, which has been implicated in enhancement of the channel activity, after cerebral ischemia. In this study, we sought to determine the role of mGluR1 in the activation of NADPH oxidase and subsequent superoxide production after transient focal cerebral ischemia. The amounts of NADPH oxidase subunits in the membrane fraction were increased after the start of reperfusion. These changes were accompanied by increased NADPH oxidase activity followed by superoxide production. The administration of an mGluR1 antagonist attenuated NADPH oxidase activity, which was coincident with inhibition of superoxide production. We further showed that the increase in the amount of PKCδ, but not of PKCζ, as well as the increase in those of NADPH oxidase subunits, was attenuated by the mGluR1 antagonist. These results suggest that mGluR1 may be linked to the increase in NADPH oxidase activity that is mediated by PKCδ and subsequent superoxide production after cerebral ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazutoshi Murotomi
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan
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Abstract
Stroke is one of the leading causes of mortality and morbidity, with astronomical financial repercussions on health systems worldwide. Ischaemic stroke accounts for approximately 80-85% of all cases and is characterised by the disruption of cerebral blood flow and lack of oxygen to the affected area. Oxidative stress culminates due to an imbalance between pro-oxidants and antioxidants and consequent excessive production of reactive oxygen species. Reactive oxygen species are biphasic, playing a role in normal physiological processes and are also implicated in a number of disease processes, whereby they mediate damage to cell structures, including lipids, membranes, proteins, and DNA. The cerebral vasculature is a major target of oxidative stress playing a critical role in the pathogenesis of ischaemic brain injury following a cerebrovascular attack. Superoxide, the primary reactive oxygen species, and its derivatives have been shown to cause vasodilatation via the opening of potassium channels and altered vascular reactivity, breakdown of the blood-brain barrier and focal destructive lesions in animal models of ischaemic stroke. However, reactive oxygen species are involved in normal physiological processes including cell signalling, induction of mitogenesis, and immune defence. Primarily, this review will focus on the cellular and vascular aspects of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species generation and their role in the pathogenesis of ischaemia-reperfusion phenomena. Secondly, the proposed mechanisms of oxidative stress-related neuronal death will be reflected upon and in summation specific targeted neuroprotective therapies targetting oxidative stress and their role in the pathogenesis of stroke will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L Allen
- Division of Stroke Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK.
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58
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Hardeland R. Neuroprotection by radical avoidance: search for suitable agents. Molecules 2009; 14:5054-102. [PMID: 20032877 PMCID: PMC6255388 DOI: 10.3390/molecules14125054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2009] [Revised: 11/30/2009] [Accepted: 12/04/2009] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurodegeneration is frequently associated with damage by free radicals. However, increases in reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, which may ultimately lead to neuronal cell death, do not necessarily reflect its primary cause, but can be a consequence of otherwise induced cellular dysfunction. Detrimental processes which promote free radical formation are initiated, e.g., by disturbances in calcium homeostasis, mitochondrial malfunction, and an age-related decline in the circadian oscillator system. Free radicals generated at high rates under pathophysiological conditions are insufficiently detoxified by scavengers. Interventions at the primary causes of dysfunction, which avoid secondary rises in radical formation, may be more efficient. The aim of such approaches should be to prevent calcium overload, to reduce mitochondrial electron dissipation, to support electron transport capacity, and to avoid circadian perturbations. L-theanine and several amphiphilic nitrones are capable of counteracting excitotoxicity and/or mitochondrial radical formation. Resveratrol seems to promote mitochondrial biogenesis. Mitochondrial effects of leptin include attenuation of electron leakage. Melatonin combines all the requirements mentioned, additionally regulates anti- and pro-oxidant enzymes and is, with few exceptions, very well tolerated. In this review, the perspectives, problems and limits of drugs are compared which may be suitable for reducing the formation of free radicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rüdiger Hardeland
- Johann Friedrich Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, University of Göttingen, Berliner str. 28, D-37073 Göttingen, Germany.
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59
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Abstract
Oxidative stress has been implicated in the pathogenesis of neurologic and psychiatric diseases. The brain is particularly vulnerable to oxidative damage due to high oxygen consumption, low antioxidant defense, and an abundance of oxidation-sensitive lipids. Production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by mitochondria is generally thought to be the main cause of oxidative stress. However, a role for ROS-generating NADPH oxidase NOX enzymes has recently emerged. Activation of the phagocyte NADPH oxidase NOX2 has been studied mainly in microglia, where it plays a role in inflammation, but may also contribute to neuronal death in pathologic conditions. However, NOX-dependent ROS production can be due to the expression of other NOX isoforms, which are detected not only in microglia, but also in astrocytes and neurons. The physiologic and pathophysiologic roles of such NOX enzymes are only partially understood. In this review, we summarize the present knowledge about NOX enzymes in the central nervous system and their involvement in neurologic and psychiatric diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Sorce
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva-4, Switzerland
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