51
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Wang T, Wang J, Yang Y, Su P, Yang Y. Co3O4/Reduced Graphene Oxide Nanocomposites as Effective Phosphotriesterase Mimetics for Degradation and Detection of Paraoxon. Ind Eng Chem Res 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.7b02223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ting Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of
Environmentally Harmful Chemical Analysis, College of Science, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Jiangning Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of
Environmentally Harmful Chemical Analysis, College of Science, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Ye Yang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of
Environmentally Harmful Chemical Analysis, College of Science, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Ping Su
- Beijing Key Laboratory of
Environmentally Harmful Chemical Analysis, College of Science, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Yi Yang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of
Environmentally Harmful Chemical Analysis, College of Science, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
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52
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Supreeth M, Raju NS. Biotransformation of chlorpyrifos and endosulfan by bacteria and fungi. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2017; 101:5961-5971. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-017-8401-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Revised: 06/15/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Engineering and introduction of de novo disulphide bridges in organophosphorus hydrolase enzyme for thermostability improvement. J Biosci 2017; 41:577-588. [PMID: 27966481 DOI: 10.1007/s12038-016-9643-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH) has been used to degrade organophosphorus chemicals, as one of the most frequently used decontamination methods. Under chemical and thermal denaturing conditions, the enzyme has been shown to unfold. To utilize this enzyme in various applications, the thermal stability is of importance. The engineering of de novo disulphide bridges has been explored as a means to increase the thermal stability of enzymes in the rational method of protein engineering. In this study, Disulphide by Design software, homology modelling and molecular dynamics simulations were used to select appropriate amino acid pairs for the introduction of disulphide bridge to improve protein thermostability. The thermostability of the wild-type and three selected mutant enzymes were evaluated by half-life, delta G inactivation (ΔGi) and structural studies (fluorescence and far-UV CD analysis). Data analysis showed that half-life of A204C/T234C and T128C/E153C mutants were increased up to 4 and 24 min, respectively; however, for the G74C/A78C mutant, the half-life was decreased up to 9 min. For the T128C/E124C mutant, both thermal stability and Catalytic efficiency (kcat) were also increased. The half-life and ΔGi results were correlated to the obtained information from structural studies by circular dichroism (CD) spectrometry and extrinsic fluorescence experiments; as rigidity increased in A204C/T2234C and T128C/E153C mutants, half-life and ΔGi also increased. For G74C/A78C mutant, these parameters decreased due to its higher flexibility. The results were submitted a strong evidence for the possibility to improve the thermostability of OPH enzyme by introducing a disulphide bridge after bioinformatics design, even though this design would not be always successful.
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55
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de Castro AA, Assis LC, Silva DR, Corrêa S, Assis TM, Gajo GC, Soares FV, Ramalho TC. Computational enzymology for degradation of chemical warfare agents: promising technologies for remediation processes. AIMS Microbiol 2017; 3:108-135. [PMID: 31294152 PMCID: PMC6604975 DOI: 10.3934/microbiol.2017.1.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 02/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemical weapons are a major worldwide problem, since they are inexpensive, easy to produce on a large scale and difficult to detect and control. Among the chemical warfare agents, we can highlight the organophosphorus compounds (OP), which contain the phosphorus element and that have a large number of applications. They affect the central nervous system and can lead to death, so there are a lot of works in order to design new effective antidotes for the intoxication caused by them. The standard treatment includes the use of an anticholinergic combined to a central nervous system depressor and an oxime. Oximes are compounds that reactivate Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), a regulatory enzyme responsible for the transmission of nerve impulses, which is one of the molecular targets most vulnerable to neurotoxic agents. Increasingly, enzymatic treatment becomes a promising alternative; therefore, other enzymes have been studied for the OP degradation function, such as phosphotriesterase (PTE) from bacteria, human serum paraoxonase 1 (HssPON1) and diisopropyl fluorophosphatase (DFPase) that showed significant performances in OP detoxification. The understanding of mechanisms by which enzymes act is of extreme importance for the projection of antidotes for warfare agents, and computational chemistry comes to aid and reduce the time and costs of the process. Molecular Docking, Molecular Dynamics and QM/MM (quantum-mechanics/molecular-mechanics) are techniques used to investigate the molecular interactions between ligands and proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Letícia C. Assis
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Lavras, 37200-000, Lavras, Brazil
| | - Daniela R. Silva
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Lavras, 37200-000, Lavras, Brazil
| | - Silviana Corrêa
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Lavras, 37200-000, Lavras, Brazil
| | - Tamiris M. Assis
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Lavras, 37200-000, Lavras, Brazil
| | - Giovanna C. Gajo
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Lavras, 37200-000, Lavras, Brazil
| | - Flávia V. Soares
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Lavras, 37200-000, Lavras, Brazil
| | - Teodorico C. Ramalho
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Lavras, 37200-000, Lavras, Brazil
- Center for Basic and Applied Research, Faculty of Informatics and Management, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, 50003, Czech Republic
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56
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Poirier L, Jacquet P, Elias M, Daudé D, Chabrière E. [Decontamination of organophosphorus compounds: Towards new alternatives]. ANNALES PHARMACEUTIQUES FRANÇAISES 2017; 75:209-226. [PMID: 28267954 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharma.2017.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2016] [Revised: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Organophosphorus coumpounds (OP) are toxic chemicals mainly used for agricultural purpose such as insecticides and were also developed and used as warfare nerve agents. OP are inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase, a key enzyme involved in the regulation of the central nervous system. Chemical, physical and biological approaches have been considered to decontaminate OP. This review summarizes the current and emerging strategies that are investigated to tackle this issue with a special emphasis on enzymatic remediation methods. During the last decade, many studies have been dedicated to the development of biocatalysts for OP removal. Among these, recent reports have pointed out the promising enzyme SsoPox isolated from the archaea Sulfolobus solfataricus. Considering both its intrinsic stability and activity, this hyperthermostable enzyme is highly appealing for the decontamination of OP.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Poirier
- Inserm, CNRS, IRD, URMITE, Aix Marseille université, Marseille, France
| | - P Jacquet
- Inserm, CNRS, IRD, URMITE, Aix Marseille université, Marseille, France
| | - M Elias
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics & Biotechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, États-Unis
| | - D Daudé
- Gene&GreenTK, faculté de médecine, 27, boulevard Jean-Moulin, 13385 Marseille cedex 5, France.
| | - E Chabrière
- Inserm, CNRS, IRD, URMITE, Aix Marseille université, Marseille, France; Gene&GreenTK, faculté de médecine, 27, boulevard Jean-Moulin, 13385 Marseille cedex 5, France.
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57
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Li D, Zhang Y, Song H, Lu L, Liu D, Yuan Y. Aminoalcohol-Induced Activation of Organophosphorus Hydrolase (OPH) towards Diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP). PLoS One 2017; 12:e0169937. [PMID: 28085964 PMCID: PMC5234802 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0169937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Aminoalcohols have been addressed as activating buffers for alkaline phosphatase. However, there is no record on the buffer activation regarding organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH). Here we reported the activating effects of aminoalcohols on OPH-catalyzed hydrolysis of diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP), an analog molecule of G-type warfare agents. The kinetic parametors kcat, Vmax and kcat/Km in the OPH reaction were remarkably increased in the buffers (pH 8.0, 25°C) containing aminoalcohols with C2 between nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O) in their structures, including triethanolamine (TEA), diethanolamine, monoethanolamine, 1-amino-2-propanol, 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol, and triisopropanolamine. In contrast, much lower or no rate-enhancing effects were observed in the adding of amines, alcohols, amine/alcohol mixtures, or 3-amino-1-propanol (C3 between N and O). The 300 mM TEA further increased DFP-degrading activities of OPH mutants F132Y and L140Y, the previously reported OPH mutants with desirable activities towards DFP. However, the treatment of ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) markedly abolished the TEA-induced activation of OPH. The product fluoride effectively inhibited OPH-catalyzed hydrolysis of DFP by a linear mixed inhibition (inhibition constant Ki ~ 3.21 mM), which was partially released by TEA adding at initial or later reaction stage. The obtained results indicate the activation of OPH by aminoalcohol buffers could be attributed to the reduction of fluoride inhibition, which would be beneficial to the hydrolase-based detoxification of organophosphofluoridate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dandan Li
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetic Regulation and Integrative Biology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, P. R. China
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hubei University of Medicine, Shiyan, Hubei, P.R. China
| | - Yunze Zhang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetic Regulation and Integrative Biology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, P. R. China
| | - Haitao Song
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, P. R. China
| | - Liangqiu Lu
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, P. R. China
| | - Deli Liu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetic Regulation and Integrative Biology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, P. R. China
- * E-mail: (YY); (DL)
| | - Yongze Yuan
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Genetic Regulation and Integrative Biology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, P. R. China
- * E-mail: (YY); (DL)
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58
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A. de Castro A, C. Assis L, R. Silva D, Corrêa S, M. Assis T, C. Gajo G, V. Soares F, C. Ramalho T. Computational enzymology for degradation of chemical warfare agents: promising technologies for remediation processes. AIMS Microbiol 2017. [DOI: 10.3934/microbiol.2017.2.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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59
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Falahati-Pour SK, Lotfi AS, Ahmadian G, Baghizadeh A, Behroozi R, Haghighi F. High-level extracellular secretion of organophosphorous hydrolase ofFlavobacteriumsp. inEscherichia coliBL21(DE3)pLysS. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2016; 63:870-876. [DOI: 10.1002/bab.1438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Soudeh Khanamani Falahati-Pour
- Department of Industrial and Environmental Biotechnology; National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (NIGEB); Tehran Iran
- Department of Biotechnology; Graduate University of Advanced Technology; Kerman Iran
| | - Abbas Sahebghadam Lotfi
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry; Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University; Tehran Iran
| | - Gholamreza Ahmadian
- Department of Industrial and Environmental Biotechnology; National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (NIGEB); Tehran Iran
| | - Amin Baghizadeh
- Department of Biotechnology; Institute of Science and High Technology and Environmental Sciences, Graduate University of Advanced Technology; Kerman Iran
| | - Reza Behroozi
- Department of Industrial and Environmental Biotechnology; National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (NIGEB); Tehran Iran
| | - Fereshteh Haghighi
- Department of Biology; Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad; Mashhad Iran
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60
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Iyengar ARS, Pande AH. Organophosphate-Hydrolyzing Enzymes as First-Line of Defence Against Nerve Agent-Poisoning: Perspectives and the Road Ahead. Protein J 2016; 35:424-439. [DOI: 10.1007/s10930-016-9686-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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61
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Bapat G, Labade C, Chaudhari A, Zinjarde S. Silica nanoparticle based techniques for extraction, detection, and degradation of pesticides. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2016; 237:1-14. [PMID: 27780560 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2016.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Revised: 05/31/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
Silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) find applications in the fields of drug delivery, catalysis, immobilization and sensing. Their synthesis can be mediated in a facile manner and they display broad range compatibility and stability. Their existence in the form of spheres, wires and sheets renders them suitable for varied purposes. This review summarizes the use of silica nanostructures in developing techniques for extraction, detection and degradation of pesticides. Silica nanostructures on account of their sorbent properties, porous nature and increased surface area allow effective extraction of pesticides. They can be modified (with ionic liquids, silanes or amines), coated with molecularly imprinted polymers or magnetized to improve the extraction of pesticides. Moreover, they can be altered to increase their sensitivity and stability. In addition to the analysis of pesticides by sophisticated techniques such as High Performance Liquid Chromatography or Gas chromatography, silica nanoparticles related simple detection methods are also proving to be effective. Electrochemical and optical detection based on enzymes (acetylcholinesterase and organophosphate hydrolase) or antibodies have been developed. Pesticide sensors dependent on fluorescence, chemiluminescence or Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopic responses are also SiNP based. Moreover, degradative enzymes (organophosphate hydrolases, carboxyesterases and laccases) and bacterial cells that produce recombinant enzymes have been immobilized on SiNPs for mediating pesticide degradation. After immobilization, these systems show increased stability and improved degradation. SiNP are significant in developing systems for effective extraction, detection and degradation of pesticides. SiNPs on account of their chemically inert nature and amenability to surface modifications makes them popular tools for fabricating devices for 'on-site' applications.
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62
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Briceño G, Schalchli H, Rubilar O, Tortella GR, Mutis A, Benimeli CS, Palma G, Diez MC. Increased diazinon hydrolysis to 2-isopropyl-6-methyl-4-pyrimidinol in liquid medium by a specific Streptomyces mixed culture. CHEMOSPHERE 2016; 156:195-203. [PMID: 27176942 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.04.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2015] [Revised: 03/28/2016] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Actinobacteria identified as Streptomyces spp. were evaluated for their ability to remove diazinon as the only carbon source from a liquid medium. Single cultures of Streptomyces strains were exposed to diazinon at a concentration of 50 mg L(-1). After 96 h incubation, six of the eight cultures grew and five strains showed an increase in their total protein concentrations and changes in their protein profile. Up to 32% of the diazinon was removed by the single Streptomyces cultures. A compatibility assay showed that the different Streptomyces species were not antagonistic. Twenty-six mixed cultures were then prepared. Diazinon removal was increased when mixed cultures were used, and maximum diazinon removal of 62% was observed when the Streptomyces spp. strains AC5, AC9, GA11 and ISP13 were mixed; this was defined as the selected mixed culture (SMC). Diazinon removal was positively influenced by the addition of glucose into the liquid medium. Our study showed a diazinon degradation rate of 0.025 h(-1), half-life of 28 h(-1) and 2-isopropyl-6-methyl-4-pyrimidinol (IMHP) production of 0.143 mg L h(-1). Rapid diazinon hydrolysis to IMHP was associated with a decrease in the pH of the medium as a consequence of microbial glucose metabolism and organic acid exudation. Moreover, the SMC of Streptomyces was able to remove IMHP. This work constitutes a new, if not the only, report on diazinon degradation by mixed cultures of Streptomyces spp. Given the high levels of diazinon removal, the SMC formed by four Streptomyces strains has the potential to be used to treat the diazinon present in environmental matrices.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Briceño
- Centro de Investigación Biotecnológica Aplicada al Medio Ambiente, Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Universidad de La Frontera, Av. Francisco Salazar 01145, Temuco, Chile; Scientific and Technological Bioresource Nucleus, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile.
| | - H Schalchli
- Centro de Investigación Biotecnológica Aplicada al Medio Ambiente, Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Universidad de La Frontera, Av. Francisco Salazar 01145, Temuco, Chile; Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - O Rubilar
- Centro de Investigación Biotecnológica Aplicada al Medio Ambiente, Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Universidad de La Frontera, Av. Francisco Salazar 01145, Temuco, Chile; Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - G R Tortella
- Centro de Investigación Biotecnológica Aplicada al Medio Ambiente, Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Universidad de La Frontera, Av. Francisco Salazar 01145, Temuco, Chile; Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - A Mutis
- Centro de Investigación Biotecnológica Aplicada al Medio Ambiente, Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Universidad de La Frontera, Av. Francisco Salazar 01145, Temuco, Chile; Department of Chemical Science and Natural Resources, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - C S Benimeli
- Planta Piloto de Procesos Industriales Microbiológicos (PROIMI), CONICET, Av. Belgrano y Pasaje Caseros, 4000 Tucumán, Argentina
| | - G Palma
- Department of Chemical Science and Natural Resources, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - M C Diez
- Centro de Investigación Biotecnológica Aplicada al Medio Ambiente, Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Universidad de La Frontera, Av. Francisco Salazar 01145, Temuco, Chile; Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile; Scientific and Technological Bioresource Nucleus, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
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63
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Luo XJ, Zhao J, Li CX, Bai YP, Reetz MT, Yu HL, Xu JH. Combinatorial evolution of phosphotriesterase toward a robust malathion degrader by hierarchical iteration mutagenesis. Biotechnol Bioeng 2016; 113:2350-7. [DOI: 10.1002/bit.26012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2016] [Revised: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 05/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Jing Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering; Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing; East China University of Science and Technology; Shanghai 200237 China
| | - Jian Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering; Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing; East China University of Science and Technology; Shanghai 200237 China
| | - Chun-Xiu Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering; Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing; East China University of Science and Technology; Shanghai 200237 China
| | - Yun-Peng Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering; Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing; East China University of Science and Technology; Shanghai 200237 China
| | - Manfred T. Reetz
- Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung; Mülheim an der Ruhr Germany
- Fachbereich Chemie; Philipps-Universität Marburg; Marburg Germany
| | - Hui-Lei Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering; Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing; East China University of Science and Technology; Shanghai 200237 China
| | - Jian-He Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering; Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing; East China University of Science and Technology; Shanghai 200237 China
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64
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Schenk G, Mateen I, Ng TK, Pedroso MM, Mitić N, Jafelicci M, Marques RF, Gahan LR, Ollis DL. Organophosphate-degrading metallohydrolases: Structure and function of potent catalysts for applications in bioremediation. Coord Chem Rev 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2016.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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65
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Jacquet P, Daudé D, Bzdrenga J, Masson P, Elias M, Chabrière E. Current and emerging strategies for organophosphate decontamination: special focus on hyperstable enzymes. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 23:8200-18. [PMID: 26832878 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-6143-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Organophosphorus chemicals are highly toxic molecules mainly used as pesticides. Some of them are banned warfare nerve agents. These compounds are covalent inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase, a key enzyme in central and peripheral nervous systems. Numerous approaches, including chemical, physical, and biological decontamination, have been considered for developing decontamination methods against organophosphates (OPs). This work is an overview of both validated and emerging strategies for the protection against OP pollution with special attention to the use of decontaminating enzymes. Considerable efforts have been dedicated during the past decades to the development of efficient OP degrading biocatalysts. Among these, the promising biocatalyst SsoPox isolated from the archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus is emphasized in the light of recently published results. This hyperthermostable enzyme appears to be particularly attractive for external decontamination purposes with regard to both its catalytic and stability properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Jacquet
- Aix Marseille Université, URMITE, UM63, CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM 1095, Marseille, France
| | - David Daudé
- Gene&GreenTK, Faculté de Médecine, 27 boulevard Jean Moulin, Cedex 5, Marseille, 13385, France
| | - Janek Bzdrenga
- Aix Marseille Université, URMITE, UM63, CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM 1095, Marseille, France
| | - Patrick Masson
- Neuropharmacology Laboratory, Kazan Federal University, Kazan, 420008, Russia
| | - Mikael Elias
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics & Biotechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Eric Chabrière
- Aix Marseille Université, URMITE, UM63, CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM 1095, Marseille, France.
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66
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Songa EA, Okonkwo JO. Recent approaches to improving selectivity and sensitivity of enzyme-based biosensors for organophosphorus pesticides: A review. Talanta 2016; 155:289-304. [PMID: 27216686 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2016.04.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Revised: 04/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Pesticide determination has attracted great attention due to the fact that they exhibit high acute toxicity and can cause long-term damage to the environment and human lives even at trace levels. Although classical analytical methods (including gas chromatography, high performance liquid chromatography, capillary electrophoresis and mass spectrometry) have been effectively used for analysis of pesticides in contaminated samples, they present certain limitations such as time-consuming sample preparation, complexity, and the requirement of expensive instrumentation and highly skilled personnel. For these reasons, there is an expanding need for analytical methods able to provide simple, rapid, sensitive, selective, low cost and reliable detection of pesticides at trace levels. Over the past decades, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) biosensors have emerged as simple, rapid and ultra-sensitive tools for toxicity detection of pesticides in the environment and food. These biosensors have the potential to complement or replace the classical analytical methods by simplifying or eliminating sample preparation and making field-testing easier and faster with significant decrease in cost per analysis. With the recent engineering of more sensitive AChE enzymes, the development of more reliable immobilization matrices and the progress in the area of microelectronics, AChE biosensors could become competitive for multi-analyte screening and soon be used for the development of portable instrumentation for rapid toxicity testing of samples. The enzymes organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH) and organophosphorus acid anhydrolase (OPAA) have also shown considerable potential in OP biosensor applications and they have been used for direct detection of OPs. This review presents the recent advances in the fabrication of enzyme biosensors for organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) and their possible applications for toxicity monitoring of organophosphorus pesticide residues in real samples. The focus will be on the different strategies for the biosensor construction, the analytical performance of the biosensors and the advantages and disadvantages of these biosensor methods. The recent works done to improve the analytical performance, sensitivity and selectivity of these biosensors will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Everlyne A Songa
- Department of Environmental, Water and Earth Sciences, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Arcadia, Pretoria 0001, South Africa
| | - Jonathan O Okonkwo
- Department of Environmental, Water and Earth Sciences, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Arcadia, Pretoria 0001, South Africa.
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67
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Jang YJ, Kim K, Tsay OG, Atwood DA, Churchill DG. Update 1 of: Destruction and Detection of Chemical Warfare Agents. Chem Rev 2015; 115:PR1-76. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 249] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yoon Jeong Jang
- Molecular Logic Gate Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, KAIST, Daejeon, 305-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Kibong Kim
- Molecular Logic Gate Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, KAIST, Daejeon, 305-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Olga G. Tsay
- Molecular Logic Gate Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, KAIST, Daejeon, 305-701, Republic of Korea
| | - David A. Atwood
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0055, United States
| | - David G. Churchill
- Molecular Logic Gate Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, KAIST, Daejeon, 305-701, Republic of Korea
- Center for Catalytic Hydrocarbon Functionalizations, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), 373-1 Guseong-dong, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 305−701, Republic of Korea
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68
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Gilani RA, Rafique M, Rehman A, Munis MFH, Rehman SU, Chaudhary HJ. Biodegradation of chlorpyrifos by bacterial genusPseudomonas. J Basic Microbiol 2015; 56:105-19. [DOI: 10.1002/jobm.201500336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 10/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Razia Alam Gilani
- Department of Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences; Quaid-i-Azam University; Islamabad Pakistan
| | - Mazhar Rafique
- Department of Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences; Quaid-i-Azam University; Islamabad Pakistan
| | - Abdul Rehman
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics; Punjab University; Lahore Pakistan
| | | | - Shafiq ur Rehman
- College of Earth and Environmental Sciences; Punjab University; Lahore Pakistan
| | - Hassan Javed Chaudhary
- Department of Plant Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences; Quaid-i-Azam University; Islamabad Pakistan
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69
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Pailan S, Saha P. Chemotaxis and degradation of organophosphate compound by a novel moderately thermo-halo tolerant Pseudomonas sp. strain BUR11: evidence for possible existence of two pathways for degradation. PeerJ 2015; 3:e1378. [PMID: 26587344 PMCID: PMC4647611 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.1378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
An organophosphate (OP) degrading chemotactic bacterial strain BUR11 isolated from an agricultural field was identified as a member of Pseudomonas genus on the basis of its 16S rRNA gene sequence. The strain could utilize parathion, chlorpyrifos and their major hydrolytic intermediates as sole source of carbon for its growth and exhibited positive chemotactic response towards most of them. Optimum concentration of parathion for its growth was recorded to be 200 ppm and 62% of which was degraded within 96 h at 37 °C. Growth studies indicated the strain to be moderately thermo-halo tolerant in nature. Investigation based on identification of intermediates of parathion degradation by thin layer chromatography (TLC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography (GC) and liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) provided evidence for possible existence of two pathways. The first pathway proceeds via 4-nitrophenol (4-NP) while the second proceeds through formation of 4-aminoparathion (4-APar), 4-aminophenol (4-AP) and parabenzoquinone (PBQ). This is the first report of chemotaxis towards organophosphate compound by a thermo-halo tolerant bacterium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santanu Pailan
- Microbiology Department, The University of Burdwan , West Bengal , India
| | - Pradipta Saha
- Microbiology Department, The University of Burdwan , West Bengal , India
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70
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Acetylcholinesterase biosensor for inhibitor measurements based on glassy carbon electrode modified with carbon black and pillar[5]arene. Talanta 2015; 144:559-68. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2015.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2015] [Revised: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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71
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Efficient Surface Display of Diisopropylfluorophosphatase (DFPase) in E. coli for Biodegradation of Toxic Organophosphorus Compounds (DFP and Cp). Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2015; 177:624-36. [DOI: 10.1007/s12010-015-1766-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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72
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Satvik Iyengar A, Tripathy RK, Bajaj P, Pande AH. Improving storage stability of recombinant organophosphorus hydrolase. Protein Expr Purif 2015; 111:28-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2015.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2015] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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73
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Yadav M, Shukla AK, Srivastva N, Upadhyay SN, Dubey SK. Utilization of microbial community potential for removal of chlorpyrifos: a review. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2015; 36:727-42. [DOI: 10.3109/07388551.2015.1015958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maya Yadav
- Centre of Advanced Study in Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India and
| | - Awadhesh Kumar Shukla
- Centre of Advanced Study in Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India and
| | - Navnita Srivastva
- Centre of Advanced Study in Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India and
| | - Siddh Nath Upadhyay
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Suresh Kumar Dubey
- Centre of Advanced Study in Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India and
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74
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Falahati-Pour S, Lotfi A, Ahmadian G, Baghizadeh A. Covalent immobilization of recombinant organophosphorus hydrolase on spores of Bacillus subtilis. J Appl Microbiol 2015; 118:976-88. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.12744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2014] [Revised: 12/10/2014] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S.K. Falahati-Pour
- Department of Industrial and Environmental Biotechnology; National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (NIGEB); Tehran Iran
| | - A.S. Lotfi
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry; Faculty of Medical Sciences; Tarbiat Modares University; Tehran Iran
| | - G. Ahmadian
- Department of Industrial and Environmental Biotechnology; National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (NIGEB); Tehran Iran
| | - A. Baghizadeh
- Department of Biotechnology; Institute of Science and High Technology and Environmental Sciences; Graduate University of Advanced Technology; Kerman Iran
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75
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Iyer R, Iken B. Protein engineering of representative hydrolytic enzymes for remediation of organophosphates. Biochem Eng J 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2014.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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76
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Iyer R, Iken B, Leon A. Developments in alternative treatments for organophosphate poisoning. Toxicol Lett 2015; 233:200-6. [PMID: 25595305 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2015.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2014] [Revised: 01/10/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Organophosphosphates (OPs) are highly effective acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors that are used worldwide as cheap, multi-purpose insecticides. OPs are also used as chemical weapons forming the active core of G-series and V-series chemical agents including tabun, sarin, soman, cyclosarin, VX, and their chemical analogs. Human exposure to any of these compounds leads to neurotoxic accumulation of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, resulting in abnormal nerve function and multiple secondary health complications. Suicide from deliberate exposure to OPs is particularly prevalent in developing countries across the world and constitutes a major global health crisis. The prevalence and accessible nature of OP compounds within modern agricultural spheres and concern over their potential use in biochemical weapon attacks have incentivized both government agencies and medical researchers to enact stricter regulatory policies over their usage and to begin developing more proactive medical treatments in cases of OP poisoning. This review will discuss the research undertaken in recent years that has investigated new supplementary drug options for OP treatment and support therapy, including progress in the development of enzymatic prophylaxis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rupa Iyer
- Center for Life Sciences Technology, Engineering Technology, University of Houston, 300 Technology Building, Houston, TX 77204, USA.
| | - Brian Iken
- Center for Life Sciences Technology, Engineering Technology, University of Houston, 300 Technology Building, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Alex Leon
- Center for Life Sciences Technology, Engineering Technology, University of Houston, 300 Technology Building, Houston, TX 77204, USA
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77
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Enhanced degradation of five organophosphorus pesticides in skimmed milk by lactic acid bacteria and its potential relationship with phosphatase production. Food Chem 2014; 164:173-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.05.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2014] [Revised: 04/08/2014] [Accepted: 05/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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78
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Talwar MP, Mulla SI, Ninnekar HZ. Biodegradation of organophosphate pesticide quinalphos by Ochrobactrum sp. strain HZM. J Appl Microbiol 2014; 117:1283-92. [PMID: 25155583 DOI: 10.1111/jam.12627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2014] [Revised: 08/13/2014] [Accepted: 08/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Isolation and identification of bacteria capable of degrading organophosphate pesticide quinalphos and elucidation of its biodegradative pathway. METHODS AND RESULTS A bacterium capable of degrading organophosphate pesticides was isolated from the pesticide-contaminated soil samples by selective enrichment on quinalphos (QP) as a sole source of carbon and energy. The bacterial strain was identified as Ochrobactrum sp. strain HZM on the basis of its morphological and biochemical characteristics and by phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequences. The organism utilized various organophosphate pesticides such as quinalphos, profenofos, parathion-methyl and chlorpyrifos as growth substrates. Response surface methodology (RSM) showed optimum conditions for quinalphos degradation at pH 7 and 27°C. 2-Hydroxyquinoxaline and diethyl phosphate were identified as metabolites of quinalphos degradation by HPLC and GC-MS analysis. Cell-free extract of Ochrobactrum sp. strain HZM grown on quinalphos contained the quinalphos hydrolase activity. CONCLUSIONS A bacterial strain capable of degrading quinalphos was isolated and identified as Ochrobactrum sp. strain HZM. The organism utilized organophosphate pesticides quinalphos, profenofos, parathion-methyl and chlorpyrifos as carbon sources. The organism degraded quinalphos by hydrolysis to yield 2-hydroxyquinoxaline and diethyl phosphate which were further utilized as carbon sources. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The isolated bacterium Ochrobactrum sp. strain HZM was versatile in degrading various organophosphate pesticides. There was complete mineralization of quinalphos by Ochrobactrum sp. This strain could potentially be useful in the bioremediation of soil and water contaminated with toxic organophosphate pesticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- M P Talwar
- Department of Biochemistry, Karnatak University, Dharwad, Karnataka, India
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79
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Luo XJ, Kong XD, Zhao J, Chen Q, Zhou J, Xu JH. Switching a newly discovered lactonase into an efficient and thermostable phosphotriesterase by simple double mutations His250Ile/Ile263Trp. Biotechnol Bioeng 2014; 111:1920-30. [PMID: 24771278 DOI: 10.1002/bit.25272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2014] [Revised: 04/17/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OPHC2 is a thermostable organophosphate (OP) hydrolase in the β-lactamase superfamily. OPs are highly toxic synthetic chemicals with no natural analogs. How did OPHC2 acquire phosphotriesterase (PTE) activity remained unclear. In this study, an OPHC2 analogue, PoOPH was discovered from Pseudomonas oleovorans exhibiting high lactonase and esterase activities and latent PTE activity. Sequence analysis revealed conserved His250 and Ile263 and site-directed mutagenesis at these crucial residues enhanced PTE activity. The best variant PoOPHM2 carrying H250I/I263W mutations displayed 6,962- and 106-fold improvements in catalytic efficiency for methyl-parathion and ethyl-paraoxon degradation, whereas the original lactonase and esterase activities decreased dramatically. A 1.4 × 10(7) -fold of specificity inversion was achieved by only two residue substitutions. Significantly, thermostability of the variants was not compromised. Crystal structure of PoOPHM2 was determined at 2.25 Å resolution and docking studies suggested that the two residues in the binding pocket determine substrate recognition. Lastly, new organophosphorus hydrolases (OPHs) were discovered using simple double mutations. Among them, PpOPHM2 from Pseudomonas putida emerged as a new promising OPH with very high activity (41.0 U mg(-1) ) toward methyl-parathion. Our results offer a first scrutiny to PTE activity evolution of OPHs in β-lactamase superfamily and provide efficient and robust enzymes for OP detoxification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Jing Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
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80
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Rao MA, Scelza R, Acevedo F, Diez MC, Gianfreda L. Enzymes as useful tools for environmental purposes. CHEMOSPHERE 2014; 107:145-162. [PMID: 24411841 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.12.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2013] [Revised: 12/02/2013] [Accepted: 12/13/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
In the environment enzymes may play important and different roles at least in three cases: as main agents (as isolated, cell-bound or immobilized enzymes) in charge of either the transformation and/or degradation of compounds polluting the environment and the restoration of the polluted environment; as reliable and sensitive tools to detect and measure the amount and concentration of pollutants before, during and after the restoration process; as reliable, easy and sensitive indicators of quality and health status of the environment subjected to the restoration process. To our knowledge papers or reviews integrating findings on these three functions of enzymes are missing in literature. Therefore the main scope of the present paper is to briefly encompass general and specific concepts about roles of enzymes as decontaminating agents, pollutant assaying agents and indicators of environment safety. Examples chosen among those published very recently, supporting and confirming peculiarities, features, and performance of enzymatic agents will be illustrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Rao
- Dipartimento di Agraria, Università di Napoli Federico II, Portici, Napoli, Italy.
| | - R Scelza
- Dipartimento di Agraria, Università di Napoli Federico II, Portici, Napoli, Italy
| | - F Acevedo
- Centre of Food Biotechnology and Bioseparations, BIOREN, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - M C Diez
- Environmental Biotechnology Center, BIOREN, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - L Gianfreda
- Dipartimento di Agraria, Università di Napoli Federico II, Portici, Napoli, Italy
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81
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Kwak Y, Lee SE, Shin JH. Expression of organophosphorus hydrolase in Escherichia coli for use as whole-cell biocatalyst. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molcatb.2013.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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82
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Iyer R, Iken B, Damania A. A comparison of organophosphate degradation genes and bioremediation applications. ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2013; 5:787-798. [PMID: 24249287 DOI: 10.1111/1758-2229.12095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2013] [Revised: 08/11/2013] [Accepted: 08/13/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Organophosphates (OPs) form the bulk of pesticides that are currently in use around the world accounting for more than 30% of the world market. They also form the core for many nerve-based warfare agents including sarin and soman. The widespread use and the resultant build-up of OP pesticides and chemical nerve agents has led to the development of major health problems due to their extremely toxic interaction with any biological system that encounters them. Growing concern over the accumulation of OP compounds in our food products, in the soils from which they are harvested and in wastewater run-off has fuelled a growing interest in microbial biotechnology that provides cheap, efficient OP detoxification to supplement expensive chemical methods. In this article, we review the current state of knowledge of OP pesticide and chemical agent degradation and attempt to clarify confusion over identification and nomenclature of two major families of OP-degrading enzymes through a comparison of their structure and function. The isolation, characterization, utilization and manipulation of the major detoxifying enzymes and the molecular basis of degradation of OP pesticides and chemical nerve agents are discussed as well as the achievements and technological advancements made towards the bioremediation of such compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rupa Iyer
- College of Technology, University of Houston, 300 Technology Building Houston, TX 77204-4021, USA
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83
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Kolvenbach BA, Helbling DE, Kohler HPE, Corvini PFX. Emerging chemicals and the evolution of biodegradation capacities and pathways in bacteria. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2013; 27:8-14. [PMID: 24863891 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2013.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2013] [Revised: 08/12/2013] [Accepted: 08/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The number of new chemicals produced is increasing daily by the thousands, and it is inevitable that many of these chemicals will reach the environment. Current research provides an understanding of how the evolution of promiscuous enzymes and the recruitment of enzymes available from the metagenome allows for the assembly of these pathways. Nevertheless, physicochemical constraints including bioavailability, bioaccessibility, and the structural variations of similar chemicals limit the evolution of biodegradation pathways. Similarly, physiological constraints related to kinetics and substrate utilization at low concentrations likewise limit chemical-enzyme interactions and consequently evolution. Considering these new data, the biodegradation decalogue still proves valid while at the same time the underlying mechanisms are better understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris A Kolvenbach
- University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, School for Life Sciences, Institute for Ecopreneurship, Gruendenstrasse 40, Muttenz 4132, Switzerland
| | - Damian E Helbling
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Department of Environmental Microbiology, Ueberlandstrasse 133, P.O. Box 611, Duebendorf 8600, Switzerland
| | - Hans-Peter E Kohler
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Department of Environmental Microbiology, Ueberlandstrasse 133, P.O. Box 611, Duebendorf 8600, Switzerland
| | - Philippe F-X Corvini
- University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, School for Life Sciences, Institute for Ecopreneurship, Gruendenstrasse 40, Muttenz 4132, Switzerland; State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University Xianlin Campus, Xianlin Avenue 163, Nanjing 210023, China.
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84
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Silambarasan S, Abraham J. Kinetic studies on enhancement of degradation of chlorpyrifos and its hydrolyzing metabolite TCP by a newly isolated Alcaligenes sp. JAS1. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2012.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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85
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Abdel-Razek MARS, Folch-Mallol JL, Perezgasga-Ciscomani L, Sánchez-Salinas E, Castrejón-Godínez ML, Ortiz-Hernández ML. Optimization of methyl parathion biodegradation and detoxification by cells in suspension or immobilized on tezontle expressing the opd gene. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART. B, PESTICIDES, FOOD CONTAMINANTS, AND AGRICULTURAL WASTES 2013; 48:449-461. [PMID: 23452210 DOI: 10.1080/03601234.2013.761863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The goal of this study was to optimize methyl parathion (O,O-dimethyl-O-4-p-nitrophenyl phosphorothioate) degradation using a strain of Escherichia coli DH5α expressing the opd gene. Our results indicate that this strain had lower enzymatic activity compared to the Flavobacterium sp. ATCC 27551 strain from which the opd gene was derived. Both strains were assessed for their ability to degrade methyl parathion (MP) in a mineral salt medium with or without the addition of glucose either as suspended cells or immobilized on tezontle, a volcanic rock. MP was degraded by both strains with similar efficiencies, but immobilized cells degraded MP more efficiently than cells in suspension. However, the viability of E. coli cells was much higher than that of the Flavobacterium sp. We confirmed the decrease in toxicity from the treated effluents through acetylcholinesterase activity tests, indicating the potential of this method for the treatment of solutions containing MP.
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86
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87
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Application of quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction on the assessment of organophosphorus compound degradation in in situ soil. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s13765-012-2168-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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88
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Chen S, Liu C, Peng C, Liu H, Hu M, Zhong G. Biodegradation of chlorpyrifos and its hydrolysis product 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol by a new fungal strain Cladosporium cladosporioides Hu-01. PLoS One 2012; 7:e47205. [PMID: 23056611 PMCID: PMC3466218 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0047205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2012] [Accepted: 09/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Intensive use of chlorpyrifos has resulted in its ubiquitous presence as a contaminant in surface streams and soils. It is thus critically essential to develop bioremediation methods to degrade and eliminate this pollutant from environments. We present here that a new fungal strain Hu-01 with high chlorpyrifos-degradation activity was isolated and identified as Cladosporium cladosporioides based on the morphology and 5.8S rDNA gene analysis. Strain Hu-01 utilized 50 mg·L−1 of chlorpyrifos as the sole carbon of source, and tolerated high concentration of chlorpyrifos up to 500 mg·L−1. The optimum degradation conditions were determined to be 26.8°C and pH 6.5 based on the response surface methodology (RSM). Under these conditions, strain Hu-01 completely metabolized the supplemented chlorpyrifos (50 mg·L−1) within 5 d. During the biodegradation process, transient accumulation of 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCP) was observed. However, this intermediate product did not accumulate in the medium and disappeared quickly. No persistent accumulative metabolite was detected by gas chromatopraphy-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis at the end of experiment. Furthermore, degradation kinetics of chlorpyrifos and TCP followed the first-order model. Compared to the non-inoculated controls, the half-lives (t1/2) of chlorpyrifos and TCP significantly reduced by 688.0 and 986.9 h with the inoculum, respectively. The isolate harbors the metabolic pathway for the complete detoxification of chlorpyrifos and its hydrolysis product TCP, thus suggesting the fungus may be a promising candidate for bioremediation of chlorpyrifos-contaminated water, soil or crop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaohua Chen
- Laboratory of Insect Toxicology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chenglan Liu
- Laboratory of Insect Toxicology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chuyan Peng
- Laboratory of Insect Toxicology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hongmei Liu
- Laboratory of Insect Toxicology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Meiying Hu
- Laboratory of Insect Toxicology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Guohua Zhong
- Laboratory of Insect Toxicology, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
- * E-mail:
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Goldsmith M, Ashani Y, Simo Y, Ben-David M, Leader H, Silman I, Sussman JL, Tawfik DS. Evolved stereoselective hydrolases for broad-spectrum G-type nerve agent detoxification. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 19:456-66. [PMID: 22520752 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2012.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2011] [Revised: 01/16/2012] [Accepted: 01/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A preferred strategy for preventing nerve agents intoxication is catalytic scavenging by enzymes that hydrolyze them before they reach their targets. Using directed evolution, we simultaneously enhanced the activity of a previously described serum paraoxonase 1 (PON1) variant for hydrolysis of the toxic S(P) isomers of the most threatening G-type nerve agents. The evolved variants show ≤340-fold increased rates and catalytic efficiencies of 0.2-5 × 10(7) M(-1) min(-1). Our selection for prevention of acetylcholinesterase inhibition also resulted in the complete reversion of PON1's stereospecificity, from an enantiomeric ratio (E) < 6.3 × 10(-4) in favor of the R(P) isomer of a cyclosarin analog in wild-type PON1, to E > 2,500 for the S(P) isomer in an evolved variant. Given their ability to hydrolyze G-agents, these evolved variants may serve as broad-range G-agent prophylactics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moshe Goldsmith
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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90
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Dennis PB, Walker AY, Dickerson MB, Kaplan DL, Naik RR. Stabilization of organophosphorus hydrolase by entrapment in silk fibroin: formation of a robust enzymatic material suitable for surface coatings. Biomacromolecules 2012; 13:2037-45. [PMID: 22651251 DOI: 10.1021/bm300358g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Organophosphates are some of the most acutely toxic compounds synthesized on an industrial scale, and organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH) has the ability to hydrolyze and inactivate a number of these chemicals. However, OPH activity is vulnerable to harsh environmental conditions that would accompany its practical utility in the field; a limitation that can also be extended to conditions required for incorporation of OPH into useful materials. Here we present evidence that entrapment of OPH in silk fibroin leads to stabilization of OPH activity under a variety of conditions that would otherwise reduce free enzyme activity, such as elevated temperature, UV light exposure and the presence of detergent. Silk fibroin entrapment of OPH also allowed for its dispersal into a polyurethane-based coating that retained organophosphate hydrolysis activity after formulation, application and drying. Together, the data presented here demonstrate the utility of silk fibroin entrapment for the protection of OPH activity under a variety of environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick B Dennis
- Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433, United States
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91
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Gao Y, Chen S, Hu M, Hu Q, Luo J, Li Y. Purification and characterization of a novel chlorpyrifos hydrolase from Cladosporium cladosporioides Hu-01. PLoS One 2012; 7:e38137. [PMID: 22693630 PMCID: PMC3367910 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0038137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2012] [Accepted: 05/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlorpyrifos is of great environmental concern due to its widespread use in the past several decades and its potential toxic effects on human health. Thus, the degradation study of chlorpyrifos has become increasing important in recent years. A fungus capable of using chlorpyrifos as the sole carbon source was isolated from organophosphate-contaminated soil and characterized as Cladosporium cladosporioides Hu-01 (collection number: CCTCC M 20711). A novel chlorpyrifos hydrolase from cell extract was purified 35.6-fold to apparent homogeneity with 38.5% overall recovery by ammoniumsulfate precipitation, gel filtration chromatography and anion-exchange chromatography. It is a monomeric structure with a molecular mass of 38.3 kDa. The pI value was estimated to be 5.2. The optimal pH and temperature of the purified enzyme were 6.5 and 40°C, respectively. No cofactors were required for the chlorpyrifos-hydrolysis activity. The enzyme was strongly inhibited by Hg2+, Fe3+, DTT, β-mercaptoethanol and SDS, whereas slight inhibitory effects (5–10% inhibition) were observed in the presence of Mn2+, Zn2+, Cu2+, Mg2+, and EDTA. The purified enzyme hydrolyzed various organophosphorus insecticides with P-O and P-S bond. Chlorpyrifos was the preferred substrate. The Km and Vmax values of the enzyme for chlorpyrifos were 6.7974 μM and 2.6473 μmol·min−1, respectively. Both NH2-terminal sequencing and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight/time-of-flight mass spectrometer (MALDI-TOF-MS) identified an amino acid sequence MEPDGELSALTQGANS, which shared no similarity with any reported organophosphate-hydrolyzing enzymes. These results suggested that the purified enzyme was a novel hydrolase and might conceivably be developed to fulfill the practical requirements to enable its use in situ for detoxification of chlorpyrifos. Finally, this is the first described chlorpyrifos hydrolase from fungus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Gao
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of High Technology for Plant Protection, Plant Protection Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Shaohua Chen
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Meiying Hu
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
- * E-mail:
| | - Qiongbo Hu
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianjun Luo
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanan Li
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide and Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
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92
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Kitchener RL, Grunden AM. Prolidase function in proline metabolism and its medical and biotechnological applications. J Appl Microbiol 2012; 113:233-47. [PMID: 22512465 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2012.05310.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Prolidase is a multifunctional enzyme that possesses the unique ability to degrade imidodipeptides in which a proline or hydroxyproline residue is located at the C-terminal end. Prolidases have been isolated from archaea and bacteria, where they are thought to participate in proline recycling. In mammalian species, prolidases are found in the cytoplasm and function primarily to liberate proline in the final stage of protein catabolism, particularly during the biosynthesis and degradation of collagen. Collagen comprises nearly one-third of the total protein in the body, and it is essential in maintaining tissue structure and integrity. Prolidase deficiency (PD), a rare autosomal recessive disorder in which mutations in the PEPD gene affect prolidase functionality, tends to have serious and sometimes life-threatening clinical symptoms. Recombinant prolidases have many applications and have been investigated not only as a possible treatment for PD, but also as a part of anti-cancer strategies, a component of biodecontamination cocktails and in the dairy industry. This review will serve to discuss the many in vivo functions of procaryotic and eucaryotic prolidases, as well as the most recent advances in therapeutic and biotechnological application of prolidases.
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Affiliation(s)
- R L Kitchener
- Department of Microbiology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
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93
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Takahashi S, Miura K, Abe K, Kera Y. Complete detoxification of tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate by two bacterial strains: Sphingobium sp. strain TCM1 and Xanthobacter autotrophicus strain GJ10. J Biosci Bioeng 2012; 114:306-11. [PMID: 22578591 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2012.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2012] [Revised: 03/02/2012] [Accepted: 04/04/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), a flame retardant, is recently regarded as a potentially toxic and persistent environmental contaminant. We previously isolated TCEP-degrading bacterium, Sphingobium sp. strain TCM1, which, however, produced a toxic metabolite: 2-chloroethanol (2-CE). This study was undertaken to develop a detoxification technique of TCEP using strain TCM1 with a 2-CE-degrading bacterium: Xanthobacter autotrophicus strain GJ10. TCEP degradation by strain TCM1-resting cells was thermally stable for 30 min at 30 °C. It was optimal at 30 °C and at pH 8.5. In the optimum condition, TCM1 cells up to a final cell density of 0.8 at OD(660) in the reaction mixture were unable to hydrolyze the phosphotriester bonds of 10 μM TCEP completely. The addition of 50 μM Co(2+) to reaction mixture enhanced the hydrolysis and caused the complete hydrolysis at the cell density of 0.8. Strain GJ10 resting cells degraded 2-CE only slightly, which might be attributable to lack of coenzyme regeneration of enzymes involved in the degradation. In contrast, the growing cells degraded approximately 180 μM of 2-CE within 24 h. Based on these results, we designed a two-step TCEP detoxification reaction consisting of TCEP hydrolysis to 2-CE by strain TCM1-resting cells and the following degradation of the resulting 2-CE by strain GJ10-growing cells. The combined reaction completely detoxified 10 μM TCEP, and thus opens a way to microbial detoxification of the potential toxic, persistent organophosphorus compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shouji Takahashi
- Department of Environmental Systems Engineering, Nagaoka University of Technology, Nagaoka, Niigata 940-2188, Japan.
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94
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Wang XX, Chi Z, Ru SG, Chi ZM. Genetic surface-display of methyl parathion hydrolase on Yarrowia lipolytica for removal of methyl parathion in water. Biodegradation 2012; 23:763-74. [PMID: 22534797 DOI: 10.1007/s10532-012-9551-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2011] [Accepted: 03/28/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
In this study, the mph gene encoding methyl parathion hydrolase from Pseudomonas sp. WBC-3 was expressed in Yarrowia lipolytica and the expressed methyl parathion hydrolase was displayed on cell surface of Y. lipolytica. The activity of methyl parathion hydrolase displayed on the yeast cells of the transformant Z51 was 59.5 U mg⁻¹ of cell dry cells (450.6 U per mL of the culture) in the presence of 5.0 mM of Co²⁺. The displayed methyl parathion hydrolase had the optimal pH of 9.5 and the optimal temperature of 40 °C, respectively and was stable in the pH range of 4.5-11 and up to 40 °C. The displayed methyl parathion hydrolase was also stimulated by Co²⁺, Cu²⁺, Ni²⁺ and Mn²⁺, and was not affected by Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺ and Zn²⁺, but was inhibited by other cations tested. Under the optimal conditions (OD(600 nm) = 2.6, the substrate concentration = 100 mg L⁻¹ and 40 °C), 90.8 % of methyl parathion was hydrolyzed within 30 min. Under the similar conditions, 98.7, 97.0, 96.5 and 94.4 % of methyl parathion in tap water (pH 9.5), tap water (pH 6.8), seawater (pH 9.5) and natural seawater (pH 8.2) were hydrolyzed, respectively, suggesting that the methyl parathion hydrolase displayed on the yeast cells can effectively remove methyl parathion in water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing-Xing Wang
- School of Marine Life Science, Ocean University of China, Yushan Road, No. 5, Qingdao, China
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95
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Improving the catalytic activity of hyperthermophilic Pyrococcus horikoshii prolidase for detoxification of organophosphorus nerve agents over a broad range of temperatures. ARCHAEA-AN INTERNATIONAL MICROBIOLOGICAL JOURNAL 2011; 2011:565127. [PMID: 22162664 PMCID: PMC3227228 DOI: 10.1155/2011/565127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2011] [Accepted: 09/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Prolidases hydrolyze Xaa-Pro dipeptides and can also cleave the P-F and P-O bonds found in organophosphorus (OP) compounds, including the nerve agents soman and sarin. Ph1prol (PH0974) has previously been isolated and characterized from Pyrococcus horikoshii and was shown to have higher catalytic activity over a broader pH range, higher affinity for metal, and increased thermostability compared to P. furiosus prolidase, Pfprol (PF1343). To obtain a better enzyme for OP nerve agent decontamination and to investigate the structural factors that may influence protein thermostability and thermoactivity, randomly mutated Ph1prol enzymes were prepared. Four Ph1prol mutants (A195T/G306S-, Y301C/K342N-, E127G/E252D-, and E36V-Ph1prol) were isolated which had greater thermostability and improved activity over a broader range of temperatures against Xaa-Pro dipeptides and OP nerve agents compared to wild type Pyrococcus prolidases.
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96
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Chino-Flores C, Dantán-González E, Vázquez-Ramos A, Tinoco-Valencia R, Díaz-Méndez R, Sánchez-Salinas E, Castrejón-Godínez ML, Ramos-Quintana F, Ortiz-Hernández ML. Isolation of the opdE gene that encodes for a new hydrolase of Enterobacter sp. capable of degrading organophosphorus pesticides. Biodegradation 2011; 23:387-97. [PMID: 22065283 DOI: 10.1007/s10532-011-9517-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2011] [Accepted: 10/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Microbial enzymes that can hydrolyze organophosphorus compounds have been isolated, identified and characterized from different microbial species in order to use them in biodegradation of organophosphorus compounds. We isolated a bacterial strain Cons002 from an agricultural soil bacterial consortium, which can hydrolyze methyl-parathion (MP) and other organophosphate pesticides. HPLC analysis showed that strain Cons002 is capable of degrading pesticides MP, parathion and phorate. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and 16S rRNA amplification were performed for strain characterization and identification, respectively, showing that the strain Cons002 is related to the genus Enterobacter sp. which has a single chromosome of 4.6 Mb and has no plasmids. Genomic library was constructed from DNA of Enterobacter sp. Cons002. A gene called opdE (Organophosphate Degradation from Enterobacter) consists of 753 bp and encodes a protein of 25 kDa, which was isolated using activity methods. This gene opdE had no similarity to any genes reported to degrade organophosphates. When kanamycin-resistance cassette was placed in the gene opdE, hydrolase activity was suppressed and Enterobacter sp. Cons002 had no growth with MP as a nutrients source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Concepción Chino-Flores
- Laboratorio de Investigaciones Ambientales, Centro de Investigación en Biotecnología, Universidad Autónoma del Estado Morelos, Av. Universidad 1001, Col. Chamilpa, C.P. 62209, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
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