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Association between behavioral and psychological symptoms and psychotropic drug use among old people with cognitive impairment living in geriatric care settings. Int Psychogeriatr 2013; 25:1415-23. [PMID: 23782794 DOI: 10.1017/s1041610213000859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Behavioral and psychological symptoms are common among cognitively impaired individuals and psychotropic drugs are widely used for their treatment. The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence and associated factors of psychotropic and anti-dementia drug use among old people with cognitive impairment living in geriatric care settings. METHODS The study comprised 2,019 cognitively impaired people living in geriatric care units in the county of Västerbotten, Sweden. Data concerning psychotropic and anti-dementia drug use, function in activities of daily living, cognitive function, and prevalence of behavioral and psychological symptoms were collected, using the Multi-Dimensional Dementia Assessment Scale. RESULTS Of the study population, 1,442 individuals (71%) were prescribed at least one psychotropic drug (antidepressants (49%), anxiolytics, hypnotics, and sedatives (36%), antipsychotics (25%)). Furthermore, 363 individuals (18%) received anti-dementia drugs. Associations between various behavioral and psychological symptoms were found for all psychotropic drug classes and anti-dementia drugs. Verbally disruptive/attention-seeking behavior was associated with all psychotropic drugs. Use of antipsychotics was associated with several behavioral and psychological symptoms, including aggressive behavior. CONCLUSION The associations between behavioral and psychological symptoms and psychotropic drug use found in this study indicate that these drugs are prescribed to treat behavioral and psychological symptoms among cognitively impaired individuals despite limited evidence of their efficacy. Given the significant risk of adverse effects among old people with cognitive impairment, it is important to ensure that any medication used is both appropriate and safe.
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Krenk L, Rasmussen LS, Kehlet H. Delirium in the fast-track surgery setting. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2013; 26:345-53. [PMID: 23040285 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpa.2012.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2012] [Accepted: 07/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Postoperative delirium (PD) and postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) are two separate syndromes of cognitive decline after major surgery, especially in the elderly. Pathogenesis is multifactorial with some common risk factors, and to reduce the risk, a multimodal approach is necessary. The fast-track methodology is becoming a well-established perioperative care regime with possible preventive effects for postoperative cognitive decline, including reduced pain and use of opioids, and early mobilisation with early discharge (≤3 days) to preoperative environment after total hip/knee arthroplasty (THA/TKA). The fast-track set-up seems to be associated with a lower frequency of PD and early POCD after THA/TKA. Thus, in a series of 225 patients ≥60 years, no cases of PD were seen and the incidence of POCD was reduced by more than 50% at 1 week postoperatively compared to previous studies. In conclusion, the fast-track methodology may reduce the incidence of postoperative cognitive decline after surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lene Krenk
- Rigshospitalet, Section of Surgical Pathophysiology, The Lundbeck Centre for Fast-track Hip and Knee Arthroplasty, Copenhagen O, Denmark.
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Rapeli P, Fabritius C, Kalska H, Alho H. Do drug treatment variables predict cognitive performance in multidrug-treated opioid-dependent patients? A regression analysis study. SUBSTANCE ABUSE TREATMENT PREVENTION AND POLICY 2012; 7:45. [PMID: 23121989 PMCID: PMC3551729 DOI: 10.1186/1747-597x-7-45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2012] [Accepted: 10/23/2012] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Background Cognitive deficits and multiple psychoactive drug regimens are both common in patients treated for opioid-dependence. Therefore, we examined whether the cognitive performance of patients in opioid-substitution treatment (OST) is associated with their drug treatment variables. Methods Opioid-dependent patients (N = 104) who were treated either with buprenorphine or methadone (n = 52 in both groups) were given attention, working memory, verbal, and visual memory tests after they had been a minimum of six months in treatment. Group-wise results were analysed by analysis of variance. Predictors of cognitive performance were examined by hierarchical regression analysis. Results Buprenorphine-treated patients performed statistically significantly better in a simple reaction time test than methadone-treated ones. No other significant differences between groups in cognitive performance were found. In each OST drug group, approximately 10% of the attention performance could be predicted by drug treatment variables. Use of benzodiazepine medication predicted about 10% of performance variance in working memory. Treatment with more than one other psychoactive drug (than opioid or BZD) and frequent substance abuse during the past month predicted about 20% of verbal memory performance. Conclusions Although this study does not prove a causal relationship between multiple prescription drug use and poor cognitive functioning, the results are relevant for psychosocial recovery, vocational rehabilitation, and psychological treatment of OST patients. Especially for patients with BZD treatment, other treatment options should be actively sought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pekka Rapeli
- Unit for Drug Dependence, Department of Psychiatry, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland.
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Desmarais JE, Beauclair L, Margolese HC. Anticholinergics in the era of atypical antipsychotics: short-term or long-term treatment? J Psychopharmacol 2012; 26:1167-74. [PMID: 22651987 DOI: 10.1177/0269881112447988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Anticholinergic agents are usually prescribed to prevent or treat antipsychotic-induced extrapyramidal symptoms. Their long-term benefits are questionable and they carry diverse adverse effects, including cognitive impairment and worsening of tardive dyskinesia. This literature review explores the impact of anticholinergic medication discontinuation on movement disorders, cognition and psychopathology in patients receiving antipsychotics. Medline, Embase and PsycInfo were searched from 1950 to July 2011 using "cessation /withdrawal /discontinuation /stopping" with "anticholinergic*" or "antiparkinson*" and "neuroleptic*" or "antipsychotic*". Additional articles were obtained by searching the bibliographies of relevant references. Earlier studies of anticholinergic agent discontinuation in patients receiving first-generation antipsychotics reported relapse rates of extrapyramidal symptoms between 4% and 80%, reflecting the heterogeneity of the studies. Two recent studies of patients prescribed second-generation antipsychotics obtained relapse rates of 4% and 33%. Some studies suggest improvement in tardive dyskinesia with cessation of anticholinergics. Four studies examined the effects of anticholinergic agent discontinuation on cognition and all observed an improvement post-discontinuation. Changes in symptoms of schizophrenia with anticholinergic discontinuation are conflicting, with more recent studies suggesting an improvement. Given their questionable benefit with continued use, clinicians should consider a gradual withdrawal of anticholinergic agents in stable patients receiving antipsychotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Eve Desmarais
- Clinical Psychopharmacology and Therapeutics Unit, Allan Memorial Institute, McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada.
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Sleep in anesthesiology – What can we learn about anesthesia from studying sleep? TRENDS IN ANAESTHESIA AND CRITICAL CARE 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tacc.2011.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Iposcialia: considerazioni eziopatogenetiche e meccanismi farmaco-indotti. DENTAL CADMOS 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cadmos.2011.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Boudreau DM, Yu O, Gray SL, Raebel MA, Johnson J, Larson EB. Concomitant Use of Cholinesterase Inhibitors and Anticholinergics: Prevalence and Outcomes. J Am Geriatr Soc 2011; 59:2069-76. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2011.03654.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Shelly L. Gray
- Department of Pharmacy; University of Washington; Seattle; Washington
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Cerejeira J, Batista P, Nogueira V, Firmino H, Vaz-Serra A, Mukaetova-Ladinska EB. Low preoperative plasma cholinesterase activity as a risk marker of postoperative delirium in elderly patients. Age Ageing 2011; 40:621-6. [PMID: 21576115 DOI: 10.1093/ageing/afr053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND delirium is a frequent neuropsychiatric syndrome affecting medical and surgical elderly patients. Cholinergic dysfunction has been implicated in delirium pathophysiology and plasmatic acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) activities are suppressed in patients with delirium. In this cohort study, we investigated whether these changes emerge during delirium or whether they are present before its onset. METHODS plasma activities of AChE and BuChE were measured pre- and postoperatively in consecutive patients ≥60 years old undergoing elective total hip replacement surgery. In addition to a comprehensive clinical and demographic baseline evaluation, venous blood samples were collected from each subject in the morning of hospital admission's day and in the morning of the first postoperative day. Delirium was screened daily with confusion assessment method (confirmed with diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV)-TR). RESULTS preoperatively, plasma esterase activity was significantly lower in patients who developed delirium compared with the remaining subjects. Following surgery BuChE activity was lower in the delirium group but this difference disappeared after controlling for preoperative values. Plasma cholinesterase activity correlated positively with calcium and haemoglobin and negatively with total bilirubin and international normalised ratio. CONCLUSION plasma cholinesterase activity can be a useful candidate biomarker to identify subjects at greater risk of developing postoperative delirium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joaquim Cerejeira
- Serviço de Psiquiatria, Hospitais da Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra 3000-377, Portugal.
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Dharia S, Verilla K, Breden EL. The 3 D's of geriatric psychiatry: depression, delirium, and dementia. THE CONSULTANT PHARMACIST : THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CONSULTANT PHARMACISTS 2011; 26:566-578. [PMID: 21840820 DOI: 10.4140/tcp.n.2011.566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
A Caucasian female octogenarian with multiple medical problems was admitted to the inpatient geriatric psychiatry unit with intermittent altered mental status and decline in memory. She had been hospitalized four times in the previous three months. She was admitted on more than 10 medications and received more than 20 different medications in this time period. It was determined that she had delirium concurrent with dementia and/or depression. During her hospital stay a urinary tract infection (UTI) was treated, her anticholinergic medications were minimized, and her digoxin dose was adjusted. As her mental status cleared, a workup was completed to differentiate between dementia and depression. She was initially treated with memantine, but as time progressed it became more evident she was experiencing depression and a "pseudodementia," which was treated with sertraline. Her Mini-Mental State Examination returned to 29/30 (her score previously was 26/29). This case demonstrates the complexity of treating an elder individual and the importance of differentiating among delirium, depression, and dementia. The pharmacy team played an active role in medication reconciliation. Additionally, they worked with the medical team to minimize her potentially harmful medications and optimize the treatment of her UTI and depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheetal Dharia
- University of South Florida College of Pharmacy, Tampa, Florida
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Cerejeira J, Mukaetova-Ladinska EB. A clinical update on delirium: from early recognition to effective management. Nurs Res Pract 2011; 2011:875196. [PMID: 21994844 PMCID: PMC3169311 DOI: 10.1155/2011/875196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2010] [Revised: 03/01/2011] [Accepted: 04/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Delirium is a neuropsychiatric syndrome characterized by altered consciousness and attention with cognitive, emotional and behavioural symptoms. It is particularly frequent in elderly people with medical or surgical conditions and is associated with adverse outcomes. Predisposing factors render the subject more vulnerable to a congregation of precipitating factors which potentially affect brain function and induce an imbalance in all the major neurotransmitter systems. Early diagnosis of delirium is crucial to improve the prognosis of patients requiring the identification of subtle and fluctuating signs. Increased awareness of clinical staff, particularly nurses, and routine screening of cognitive function with standardized instruments, can be decisive to increase detection rates of delirium. General measures to prevent delirium include the implementation of protocols to systematically identify and minimize all risk factors present in a particular clinical setting. As soon as delirium is recognized, prompt removal of precipitating factors is warranted together with environmental changes and early mobilization of patients. Low doses of haloperidol or olanzapine can be used for brief periods, for the behavioural control of delirium. All of these measures are a part of the multicomponent strategy for prevention and treatment of delirium, in which the nursing care plays a vital role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joaquim Cerejeira
- Serviço de Psiquiatria, Hospitais da Universidade de Coimbra, Praceta Mota Pinto, 3000 Coimbra, Portugal
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Yager JR, Magnotta VA, Mills JA, Vik SM, Weckmann MT, Capizzano AA, Gingrich R, Beglinger LJ. Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in adult cancer patients with delirium. Psychiatry Res 2011; 191:128-32. [PMID: 21227658 PMCID: PMC3030637 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2010] [Revised: 10/28/2010] [Accepted: 11/04/2010] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Delirium is associated with a host of negative outcomes, including increased risk of mortality, longer hospital stay, and poor long-term cognitive function. The pathophysiology of delirium is not well understood. Cancer patients undergoing a bone marrow transplant (BMT) are at high risk for developing delirium and Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy ((1)H MRS) could lead to better understanding of the delirium process. Fourteen BMT patients and 10 controls completed (1)H MRS, positioned above the corpus callosum, shortly after delirium onset or at study end if no delirium occurred. In the BMT-delirium group, statistically significantly elevated tCho/tCr was found in contrast to the BMT-no delirium group. The BMT-delirium group also showed statistically significantly lesser NAA/tCho compared with both controls and the BMT-no delirium group. Elevated choline and reduced NAA indicate inflammatory processes and white matter damage as well as neuronal metabolic impairment. Further research is needed to separate the choline peaks, as well as more detailed collection of medication regimens to determine whether a higher choline concentration is a function of the delirium process or cancer treatment effects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Leigh J. Beglinger
- Address correspondences to: Leigh J. Beglinger, PhD, University of Iowa, Department of Psychiatry, MEB 1-321, Iowa City, IA 52242-1000. Tel.: 319-335-8765. FAX: 319-353-3003.
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Lauretani F, Ceda GP, Maggio M, Nardelli A, Saccavini M, Ferrucci L. Capturing side-effect of medication to identify persons at risk of delirium. Aging Clin Exp Res 2010; 22:456-8. [PMID: 21422797 DOI: 10.1007/bf03324944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Delirium, an acute confusional state characterized by decline in attention and cognition, is a common, life-threatening, but potentially preventable clinical syndrome among older persons. Deficits in cholinergic function have been postulated to cause delirium and cognitive decline. In particular, an imbalance between levels of acetylcholine and monoamine (such as dopamine) may cause delirium. We describe two cases of delirium in hospitalized older patients, supporting the "cholinergic deficiency hypothesis". In the first patient, hypo-reactive delirium developed a few hours after a dose of the long-acting opiate tramadol (a drug with anticholinergic effect) as analgesic for pain related to advanced peripheral artery disease. In the second patient, with vascular parkinsonism plus pre-frontal cortex vascular lesions, hyper-reactive delirium developed a few hours after a prescribed administration of L-dopa. These symptoms disappeared completely on the following day. These two "natural" experiments support the hypothesis that both hypo-reactive and hyper-active delirium may be caused by a reduction in cholinergic signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fulvio Lauretani
- Geriatric Unit and Clinical Geriatrics, Department of Geriatric and Rehabilitation, University Hospital of Parma, Via Gramsci 14, 43100 Parma, Italy.
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Olsson J, Bergman Å, Carlsten A, Oké T, Bernsten C, Schmidt IK, Fastbom J. Quality of Drug Prescribing in Elderly People in Nursing Homes and Special Care Units for Dementia. Clin Drug Investig 2010; 30:289-300. [DOI: 10.2165/11534320-000000000-00000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Hafner V, Grün B, Markert C, Czock D, Mikus G, Haefeli W. Arzneimittelinteraktionen. Internist (Berl) 2010; 51:359-69; quiz 370. [DOI: 10.1007/s00108-009-2553-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Munhoz RP, Moscovich MM, Filla L, Carneiro MCB. Topical tropicamide induced delirium and psychosis: case report. JORNAL BRASILEIRO DE PSIQUIATRIA 2010. [DOI: 10.1590/s0047-20852010000100012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Acute psychosis and confusional states are known complications of treatment with anticholinergic agents in the elderly. We report an 87-year-old female patient presenting with acute neurobehavioral abnormalities requiring hospitalization immediately after starting treatment for openangle glaucoma with the topic cycloplegic muscarinic receptor blocker tropicamide. Case-effect relationship was confirmed. The authors make a review of the literature trying to identify the clinical manifestations and risk factors for this complication.
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Current awareness: Pharmacoepidemiology and drug safety. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/pds.1653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Cancelli I, Beltrame M, D'Anna L, Gigli GL, Valente M. Drugs with anticholinergic properties: a potential risk factor for psychosis onset in Alzheimer's disease? Expert Opin Drug Saf 2009; 8:549-57. [DOI: 10.1517/14740330903099636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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