Two steps in the assembly of complexes at yeast replication origins in vivo

Peaks cloaked in the mist: the landscape of mammalian replication origins

Replication of mammalian genomes starts at sites termed replication origins, which historically have been difficult to locate as a result of large genome sizes, limited power of genetic identification schemes, and rareness and fragility of initiation intermediates. However, origins are now mapped by the thousands using microarrays and sequencing techniques. Independent studies show modest concordance, suggesting that mammalian origins can form at any DNA sequence but are suppressed by read-through transcription or that they can overlap the 5' end or even the entire gene. These results require a critical reevaluation of whether origins form at specific DNA elements and/or epigenetic signals or require no such determinants.

DNA binding polarity, dimerization, and ATPase ring remodeling in the CMG helicase of the eukaryotic replisome

The Cdc45/Mcm2-7/GINS (CMG) helicase separates DNA strands during replication in eukaryotes. How the CMG is assembled and engages DNA substrates remains unclear. Using electron microscopy, we have determined the structure of the CMG in the presence of ATPγS and a DNA duplex bearing a 3' single-stranded tail. The structure shows that the MCM subunits of the CMG bind preferentially to single-stranded DNA, establishes the polarity by which DNA enters into the Mcm2-7 pore, and explains how Cdc45 helps prevent DNA from dissociating from the helicase. The Mcm2-7 subcomplex forms a cracked-ring, right-handed spiral when DNA and nucleotide are bound, revealing unexpected congruencies between the CMG and both bacterial DnaB helicases and the AAA+ motor of the eukaryotic proteasome. The existence of a subpopulation of dimeric CMGs establishes the subunit register of Mcm2-7 double hexamers and together with the spiral form highlights how Mcm2-7 transitions through different conformational and assembly states as it matures into a functional helicase.

The replication fork: understanding the eukaryotic replication machinery and the challenges to genome duplication

Eukaryotic cells must accurately and efficiently duplicate their genomes during each round of the cell cycle. Multiple linear chromosomes, an abundance of regulatory elements, and chromosome packaging are all challenges that the eukaryotic DNA replication machinery must successfully overcome. The replication machinery, the “replisome” complex, is composed of many specialized proteins with functions in supporting replication by DNA polymerases. Efficient replisome progression relies on tight coordination between the various factors of the replisome. Further, replisome progression must occur on less than ideal templates at various genomic loci. Here, we describe the functions of the major replisome components, as well as some of the obstacles to efficient DNA replication that the replisome confronts. Together, this review summarizes current understanding of the vastly complicated task of replicating eukaryotic DNA.

Mechanism of chromosomal DNA replication initiation and replication fork stabilization in eukaryotes

Chromosomal DNA replication is one of the central biological events occurring inside cells. Due to its large size, the replication of genomic DNA in eukaryotes initiates at hundreds to tens of thousands of sites called DNA origins so that the replication could be completed in a limited time. Further, eukaryotic DNA replication is sophisticatedly regulated, and this regulation guarantees that each origin fires once per S phase and each segment of DNA gets duplication also once per cell cycle. The first step of replication initiation is the assembly of pre-replication complex (pre-RC). Since 1973, four proteins, Cdc6/Cdc18, MCM, ORC and Cdt1, have been extensively studied and proved to be pre-RC components. Recently, a novel pre-RC component called Sap1/Girdin was identified. Sap1/Girdin is required for loading Cdc18/Cdc6 to origins for pre-RC assembly in the fission yeast and human cells, respectively. At the transition of G1 to S phase, pre-RC is activated by the two kinases, cyclindependent kinase (CDK) and Dbf4-dependent kinase (DDK), and subsequently, RPA, primase-polα, PCNA, topoisomerase, Cdc45, polδ, and polɛ are recruited to DNA origins for creating two bi-directional replication forks and initiating DNA replication. As replication forks move along chromatin DNA, they frequently stall due to the presence of a great number of replication barriers on chromatin DNA, such as secondary DNA structures, protein/DNA complexes, DNA lesions, gene transcription. Stalled forks must require checkpoint regulation for their stabilization. Otherwise, stalled forks will collapse, which results in incomplete DNA replication and genomic instability. This short review gives a concise introduction regarding the current understanding of replication initiation and replication fork stabilization.

Origin plasticity during budding yeast DNA replication in vitro

The separation of DNA replication origin licensing and activation in the cell cycle is essential for genome stability across generations in eukaryotic cells. Pre-replicative complexes (pre-RCs) license origins by loading Mcm2-7 complexes in inactive form around DNA. During origin firing in S phase, replisomes assemble around the activated Mcm2-7 DNA helicase. Budding yeast pre-RCs have previously been reconstituted in vitro with purified proteins. Here, we show that reconstituted pre-RCs support replication of plasmid DNA in yeast cell extracts in a reaction that exhibits hallmarks of cellular replication initiation. Plasmid replication in vitro results in the generation of covalently closed circular daughter molecules, indicating that the system recapitulates the initiation, elongation, and termination stages of DNA replication. Unexpectedly, yeast origin DNA is not strictly required for DNA replication in vitro, as heterologous DNA sequences could support replication of plasmid molecules. Our findings support the notion that epigenetic mechanisms are important for determining replication origin sites in budding yeast, highlighting mechanistic principles of replication origin specification that are common among eukaryotes.

Cell cycle regulation by protein degradation

Cell division is controlled by a highly regulated program to accurately duplicate and segregate chromosomes. An important feature of the cell cycle regulatory program is that key cell cycle proteins are present and active during specific cell cycle stages but are later removed or inhibited to maintain appropriate timing. The ubiquitin-proteasome system has emerged as an important mechanism to target cell cycle proteins for degradation at critical junctures during cell division. Two key E3 ubiquitin ligase complexes that target key cell cycle proteins are the Skp1-Cul1-F-box protein complex and the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome. This chapter focuses on the role of these E3 ubiquitin ligases and how ubiquitin-dependent degradation of central cell cycle regulatory proteins advances the cell cycle.

Helicase loading at chromosomal origins of replication

Loading of the replicative DNA helicase at origins of replication is of central importance in DNA replication. As the first of the replication fork proteins assemble at chromosomal origins of replication, the loaded helicase is required for the recruitment of the rest of the replication machinery. In this work, we review the current knowledge of helicase loading at Escherichia coli and eukaryotic origins of replication. In each case, this process requires both an origin recognition protein as well as one or more additional proteins. Comparison of these events shows intriguing similarities that suggest a similar underlying mechanism, as well as critical differences that likely reflect the distinct processes that regulate helicase loading in bacterial and eukaryotic cells.

Mechanisms for initiating cellular DNA replication

The initiation of DNA replication represents a committing step to cell proliferation. Appropriate replication onset depends on multiprotein complexes that help properly distinguish origin regions, generate nascent replication bubbles, and promote replisome formation. This review describes initiation systems employed by bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes, with a focus on comparing and contrasting molecular mechanisms among organisms. Although commonalities can be found in the functional domains and strategies used to carry out and regulate initiation, many key participants have markedly different activities and appear to have evolved convergently. Despite significant advances in the field, major questions still persist in understanding how initiation programs are executed at the molecular level.

A structural framework for replication origin opening by AAA+ initiation factors

ATP-dependent initiation factors help process replication origins and coordinate replisome assembly to control the onset of DNA synthesis. Although the specific properties and regulatory mechanisms of initiator proteins can vary greatly between different organisms, certain nucleotide-binding elements and assembly patterns appear preserved not only within the three domains of cellular life (bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes), but also with certain classes of double-stranded DNA viruses. Structural studies of replication initiation proteins, both as higher-order oligomers and in complex with cognate DNA substrates, are revealing how an evolutionarily related ATPase fold can support different modes of macromolecular assembly and function. Comparative studies between initiation systems in turn provide clues as to how duplex origin regions may be melted during initiation events.

Orc2 protects ORCA from ubiquitin-mediated degradation

Origin recognition complex (ORC) is highly dynamic, with several ORC subunits getting posttranslationally modified by phosphorylation or ubiquitination in a cell cycle-dependent manner. We have previously demonstrated that a WD repeat containing protein ORC-associated (ORCA/LRWD1) stabilizes the ORC on chromatin and facilitates pre-RC assembly. Further, ORCA levels are cell cycle-regulated, with highest levels during G(1), and progressively decreasing during S phase, but the mechanism remains to be elucidated. We now demonstrate that ORCA is polyubiquitinated in vivo, with elevated ubiquitination observed at the G(1)/S boundary. ORCA utilizes lysine-48 (K48) ubiquitin linkage, suggesting that ORCA ubiquitination mediates its regulated degradation. Ubiquitinated ORCA is re-localized in the form of nuclear aggregates and is predominantly associated with chromatin. We demonstrate that ORCA associates with the E3 ubiquitin ligase Cul4A-Ddb1. ORCA is ubiquitinated at the WD40 repeat domain, a region that is also recognized by Orc2. Furthermore, Orc2 associates only with the non-ubiquitinated form of ORCA, and Orc2 depletion results in the proteasome-mediated destabilization of ORCA. Based on the results, we suggest that Orc2 protects ORCA from ubiquitin-mediated degradation in vivo.

Open chromatin structures regulate the efficiencies of pre-RC formation and replication initiation in Epstein-Barr virus

Studies of EBV replication origins demonstrate an excess of pre-replication complexes that are formed at flexible MNase-sensitive sites in the genome.

Whether or not metazoan replication initiates at random or specific but flexible sites is an unsolved question. The lack of sequence specificity in origin recognition complex (ORC) DNA binding complicates genome-scale chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP)-based studies. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) persists as chromatinized minichromosomes that are replicated by the host replication machinery. We used EBV to investigate the link between zones of pre-replication complex (pre-RC) assembly, replication initiation, and micrococcal nuclease (MNase) sensitivity at different cell cycle stages in a genome-wide fashion. The dyad symmetry element (DS) of EBV’s latent origin, a well-established and very efficient pre-RC assembly region, served as an internal control. We identified 64 pre-RC zones that correlate spatially with 57 short nascent strand (SNS) zones. MNase experiments revealed that pre-RC and SNS zones were linked to regions of increased MNase sensitivity, which is a marker of origin strength. Interestingly, although spatially correlated, pre-RC and SNS zones were characterized by different features. We propose that pre-RCs are formed at flexible but distinct sites, from which only a few are activated per single genome and cell cycle.

DNA polymerization-independent functions of DNA polymerase epsilon in assembly and progression of the replisome in fission yeast

DNA Pol ε synthesizes the leading strands, following the CMG (Cdc45/Mcm2-7/GINS) helicase, although the N-terminal polymerase domain of the catalytic subunit, Cdc20 in fission yeast, is dispensable for viability. We show that the C-terminal domain of Cdc20 plays the noncatalytic essential roles in both the assembly and progression of CMG helicase.

DNA polymerase epsilon (Pol ε) synthesizes the leading strands, following the CMG (Cdc45, Mcm2-7, and GINS [Go-Ichi-Nii-San]) helicase that translocates on the leading-strand template at eukaryotic replication forks. Although Pol ε is essential for the viability of fission and budding yeasts, the N-terminal polymerase domain of the catalytic subunit, Cdc20/Pol2, is dispensable for viability, leaving the following question: what is the essential role(s) of Pol ε? In this study, we investigated the essential roles of Pol ε using a temperature-sensitive mutant and a recently developed protein-depletion (off-aid) system in fission yeast. In cdc20-ct1 cells carrying mutations in the C-terminal domain of Cdc20, the CMG components, RPA, Pol α, and Pol δ were loaded onto replication origins, but Cdc45 did not translocate from the origins, suggesting that Pol ε is required for CMG helicase progression. In contrast, depletion of Cdc20 abolished the loading of GINS and Cdc45 onto origins, indicating that Pol ε is essential for assembly of the CMG complex. These results demonstrate that Pol ε plays essential roles in both the assembly and progression of CMG helicase.

Genome-wide localization of replication factors

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a powerful tool for the identification and characterization of protein-DNA interactions in vivo. ChIP has been utilized to study diverse nuclear processes such as transcription regulation, chromatin modification, DNA recombination and DNA replication at specific loci and, more recently, across the entire genome. Advances in genomic approaches, and whole genome sequencing in particular, have made it possible and affordable to comprehensively identify specific protein binding sites throughout the genomes of higher eukaryotes. The dynamic nature of the DNA replication program and the transient occupancy of many replication factors throughout the cell cycle present additional challenges that may not pertain to the mapping of site specific transcription factors. Here we discuss the specific considerations that need to be addressed in the application of ChIP to the genome-wide location analysis of protein factors involved in DNA replication.

Quality control in the initiation of eukaryotic DNA replication

Origins of DNA replication must be regulated to ensure that the entire genome is replicated precisely once in each cell cycle. In human cells, this requires that tens of thousands of replication origins are activated exactly once per cell cycle. Failure to do so can lead to cell death or genome rearrangements such as those associated with cancer. Systems ensuring efficient initiation of replication, while also providing a robust block to re-initiation, play a crucial role in genome stability. In this review, I will discuss some of the strategies used by cells to ensure once per cell cycle replication and provide a quantitative framework to evaluate the relative importance and efficiency of individual pathways involved in this regulation.

Polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1): an Unexpected Player in DNA Replication

Regulation of cell cycle progression is important for the maintenance of genome integrity, and Polo-like kinases (Plks) have been identified as key regulators of this process. It is well established that Polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1) plays critical roles in mitosis but little is known about its functions at other stages of the cell cycle. Here we summarize the functions of Plk1 during DNA replication, focusing on the molecular events related to Origin Recognition Complex (ORC), the complex that is essential for the initiation of DNA replication. Within the context of Plk1 phosphorylation of Orc2, we also emphasize regulation of Orc2 in different organisms. This review is intended to provide some insight into how Plk1 coordinates DNA replication in S phase with chromosome segregation in mitosis, and orchestrates the cell cycle as a whole.

CDK promotes interactions of Sld3 and Drc1 with Cut5 for initiation of DNA replication in fission yeast

Study of the essential roles of CDK in initiation of DNA replication in fission yeast indicates that CDK phosphorylates Sld3 and Drc1/Sld2 and promotes their interactions with Cut5, which are required for origin loading of Cut5. Thus CDK regulates assembly of replication factors onto origins by promoting ternary Sld3–Cut5–Drc1 complex formation.

Cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) plays essential roles in the initiation of DNA replication in eukaryotes. Although interactions of CDK-phosphorylated Sld2/Drc1 and Sld3 with Dpb11 have been shown to be essential in budding yeast, it is not known whether the mechanism is conserved. In this study, we investigated how CDK promotes the assembly of replication proteins onto replication origins in fission yeast. Phosphorylation of Sld3 was found to be dependent on CDK in S phase. Alanine substitutions at CDK sites decreased the interaction with Cut5/Dpb11 at the N-terminal BRCT motifs and decreased the loading of Cut5 onto replication origins. This defect was suppressed by overexpression of drc1⁺. Phosphorylation of a conserved CDK site, Thr-111, in Drc1 was critical for interaction with Cut5 at the C-terminal BRCT motifs and was required for loading of Cut5. In a yeast three-hybrid assay, Sld3, Cut5, and Drc1 were found to form a ternary complex dependent on the CDK sites of Sld3 and Drc1, and Drc1–Cut5 binding enhanced the Sld3–Cut5 interaction. These results show that the mechanism of CDK-dependent loading of Cut5 is conserved in fission yeast in a manner similar to that elucidated in budding yeast.

High-resolution analysis of four efficient yeast replication origins reveals new insights into the ORC and putative MCM binding elements

In budding yeast, the eukaryotic initiator protein ORC (origin recognition complex) binds to a bipartite sequence consisting of an 11 bp ACS element and an adjacent B1 element. However, the genome contains many more matches to this consensus than actually bind ORC or function as origins in vivo. Although ORC-dependent loading of the replicative MCM helicase at origins is enhanced by a distal B2 element, less is known about this element. Here, we analyzed four highly active origins (ARS309, ARS319, ARS606 and ARS607) by linker scanning mutagenesis and found that sequences adjacent to the ACS contributed substantially to origin activity and ORC binding. Using the sequences of four additional B2 elements we generated a B2 multiple sequence alignment and identified a shared, degenerate 8 bp sequence that was enriched within 228 known origins. In addition, our high-resolution analysis revealed that not all origins exist within nucleosome free regions: a class of Sir2-regulated origins has a stably positioned nucleosome overlapping or near B2. This study illustrates the conserved yet flexible nature of yeast origin architecture to promote ORC binding and origin activity, and helps explain why a strong match to the ORC binding site is insufficient to identify origins within the genome.

Bubble-chip analysis of human origin distributions demonstrates on a genomic scale significant clustering into zones and significant association with transcription

We have used a novel bubble-trapping procedure to construct nearly pure and comprehensive human origin libraries from early S- and log-phase HeLa cells, and from log-phase GM06990, a karyotypically normal lymphoblastoid cell line. When hybridized to ENCODE tiling arrays, these libraries illuminated 15.3%, 16.4%, and 21.8% of the genome in the ENCODE regions, respectively. Approximately half of the origin fragments cluster into zones, and their signals are generally higher than those of isolated fragments. Interestingly, initiation events are distributed about equally between genic and intergenic template sequences. While only 13.2% and 14.0% of genes within the ENCODE regions are actually transcribed in HeLa and GM06990 cells, 54.5% and 25.6% of zonal origin fragments overlap transcribed genes, most with activating chromatin marks in their promoters. Our data suggest that cell synchronization activates a significant number of inchoate origins. In addition, HeLa and GM06990 cells activate remarkably different origin populations. Finally, there is only moderate concordance between the log-phase HeLa bubble map and published maps of small nascent strands for this cell line.

Systems-level feedback in cell-cycle control

Alternation of chromosome replication and segregation is essential for successful completion of the cell cycle and it requires an oscillation of Cdk1 (cyclin-dependent kinase 1)-CycB (cyclin B) activity. In the present review, we illustrate the essential features of checkpoint controlled and uncontrolled cell-cycle oscillations by using mechanical metaphors. Despite variations in the molecular details of the oscillatory mechanism, the underlying network motifs responsible for the oscillations are always well-conserved. The checkpoint-controlled cell cycles are always driven by a negative-feedback loop amplified by double-negative feedbacks (antagonism).

A WD-repeat protein stabilizes ORC binding to chromatin

Origin recognition complex (ORC) plays critical roles in the initiation of DNA replication and cell-cycle progression. In metazoans, ORC associates with origin DNA during G1 and with heterochromatin in postreplicated cells. However, what regulates the binding of ORC to chromatin is not understood. We have identified a highly conserved, leucine-rich repeats and WD40 repeat domain-containing protein 1 (LRWD1) or ORC-associated (ORCA) in human cells that interacts with ORC and modulates chromatin association of ORC. ORCA colocalizes with ORC and shows similar cell-cycle dynamics. We demonstrate that ORCA efficiently recruits ORC to chromatin. Depletion of ORCA in human primary cells and embryonic stem cells results in loss of ORC association to chromatin, concomitant reduction of MCM binding, and a subsequent accumulation in G1 phase. Our results suggest ORCA-mediated association of ORC to chromatin is critical to initiate preRC assembly in G1 and chromatin organization in post-G1 cells.

Diversity of eukaryotic DNA replication origins revealed by genome-wide analysis of chromatin structure

Eukaryotic DNA replication origins differ both in their efficiency and in the characteristic time during S phase when they become active. The biological basis for these differences remains unknown, but they could be a consequence of chromatin structure. The availability of genome-wide maps of nucleosome positions has led to an explosion of information about how nucleosomes are assembled at transcription start sites, but no similar maps exist for DNA replication origins. Here we combine high-resolution genome-wide nucleosome maps with comprehensive annotations of DNA replication origins to identify patterns of nucleosome occupancy at eukaryotic replication origins. On average, replication origins contain a nucleosome depleted region centered next to the ACS element, flanked on both sides by arrays of well-positioned nucleosomes. Our analysis identified DNA sequence properties that correlate with nucleosome occupancy at replication origins genome-wide and that are correlated with the nucleosome-depleted region. Clustering analysis of all annotated replication origins revealed a surprising diversity of nucleosome occupancy patterns. We provide evidence that the origin recognition complex, which binds to the origin, acts as a barrier element to position and phase nucleosomes on both sides of the origin. Finally, analysis of chromatin reconstituted in vitro reveals that origins are inherently nucleosome depleted. Together our data provide a comprehensive, genome-wide view of chromatin structure at replication origins and suggest a model of nucleosome positioning at replication origins in which the underlying sequence occludes nucleosomes to permit binding of the origin recognition complex, which then (likely in concert with nucleosome modifiers and remodelers) positions nucleosomes adjacent to the origin to promote replication origin function.

Ubc4 and Not4 regulate steady-state levels of DNA polymerase-α to promote efficient and accurate DNA replication

DNA polymerase-alpha (pol-alpha) is essential for eukaryotic replication but lacks proofreading activity. Its turnover is regulated by the E2 Ubc4 and the E3 Not4, which are known transcriptional regulators. This pathway likely prevents accumulation of the potential mutator pol-alpha to promote genome stability.

The accurate duplication of chromosomal DNA is required to maintain genomic integrity. However, from an evolutionary point of view, a low mutation rate during DNA replication is desirable. One way to strike the right balance between accuracy and limited mutagenesis is to use a DNA polymerase that lacks proofreading activity but contributes to DNA replication in a very restricted manner. DNA polymerase-α fits this purpose exactly, but little is known about its regulation at the replication fork. Minichromosome maintenance protein (Mcm) 10 regulates the stability of the catalytic subunit of pol-α in budding yeast and human cells. Cdc17, the catalytic subunit of pol-α in yeast, is rapidly degraded after depletion of Mcm10. Here we show that Ubc4 and Not4 are required for Cdc17 destabilization. Disruption of Cdc17 turnover resulted in sensitivity to hydroxyurea, suggesting that this pathway is important for DNA replication. Furthermore, overexpression of Cdc17 in ubc4 and not4 mutants caused slow growth and synthetic dosage lethality, respectively. Our data suggest that Cdc17 levels are very tightly regulated through the opposing forces of Ubc4 and Not4 (destabilization) and Mcm10 (stabilization). We conclude that regular turnover of Cdc17 via Ubc4 and Not4 is required for proper cell proliferation.

DNA replication origins, ORC/DNA interaction, and assembly of pre-replication complex in eukaryotes

Chromosomal DNA replication in eukaryotic cells is highly complicated and sophisticatedly regulated. Owing to its large size, a typical eukaryotic genome contains hundreds to tens of thousands of initiation sites called DNA replication origins where DNA synthesis takes place. Multiple initiation sites remove the constraint of a genome size because only a certain amount of DNA can be replicated from a single origin in a limited time. The activation of these multiple origins must be coordinated so that each segment of chromosomal DNA is precisely duplicated only once per cell cycle. Although DNA replication is a vital process for cell growth and its mechanism is highly conserved, recent studies also reveal significant diversity in origin structure, assembly of pre-replication complex (pre-RC) and regulation of replication initiation along evolutionary lines. The DNA replication origins in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe are found to contain a second essential element that is bound by Sap1 protein besides the essential origin recognition complex-binding site. Sap1 is recently demonstrated to be a novel replication initiation protein that plays an essential role in loading the initiation protein Cdc18 to origins and thus directly participates in pre-RC formation. In this review, we summarize the recent advance in understanding how DNA replication origins are organized, how pre-RC is assembled and how DNA replication is initiated and regulated in yeast and metazoans.

Break-induced replication requires all essential DNA replication factors except those specific for pre-RC assembly

Break-induced replication (BIR) is an efficient homologous recombination (HR) pathway employed to repair a DNA double-strand break (DSB) when homology is restricted to one end. All three major replicative DNA polymerases are required for BIR, including the otherwise nonessential Pol32 subunit. Here we show that BIR requires the replicative DNA helicase (Cdc45, the GINS, and Mcm2-7 proteins) as well as Cdt1. In contrast, both subunits of origin recognition complex (ORC) and Cdc6, which are required to create a prereplication complex (pre-RC), are dispensable. The Cdc7 kinase, required for both initiation of DNA replication and post-replication repair (PRR), is also required for BIR. Ubiquitination and sumoylation of the DNA processivity clamp PCNA play modest roles; in contrast, PCNA alleles that suppress pol32Delta's cold sensitivity fail to suppress its role in BIR, and are by themselves dominant inhibitors of BIR. These results suggest that origin-independent BIR involves cross-talk between normal DNA replication factors and PRR.

Why are we where we are? Understanding replication origins and initiation sites in eukaryotes using ChIP-approaches

DNA replication initiates from origins of replication following a strict sequential activation programme and a conserved temporal order of activation. The number of replication initiation sites varies between species, according to the complexity of the genomes, with an average spacing of 100,000 bp. In contrast to yeast genomes, the location and definition of origins in mammalian genomes has been elusive. Historically, mammalian replication initiation sites have been mapped in situ by systematically searching specific genomic loci for sites that preferentially initiated DNA replication, potential origins by start-site mapping and autonomously replicating sequence experiments, and potential ORC and pre-replicative complex (pre-RC) sites by chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) using antibodies for pre-RC proteins. In the past decade, ChIP has become an important method for analyzing protein/DNA interactions. Classically, ChIP is combined with Southern blotting or PCR. Recently, whole genome-ChIP methods have been very successful in unicellular eukaryotes to understand molecular mechanisms coordinating replication initiation and its flexibility in response to environmental changes. However, in mammalian systems, ChIP with pre-RC antibodies has often been challenging and genome-wide studies are scarce. In this review, we will appraise the progress that has been made in understanding replication origin organization using immunoprecipitation of the ORC and Mcm2-7 complexes. A special focus will be on the advantages and disadvantages of genome-wide ChIP-technologies and their potential impact on understanding metazoan replicators.

Timing is everything: cell cycle control of Rad52

Regulation of the repair of DNA double-strand breaks by homologous recombination is extremely important for both cell viability and the maintenance of genomic integrity. Modulation of double-strand break repair in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae involves controlling the recruitment of one of the central recombination proteins, Rad52, to sites of DNA lesions. The Rad52 protein, which plays a role in strand exchange and the annealing of single strand DNA, is positively regulated upon entry into S phase, repressed during the intra-S phase checkpoint, and undergoes posttranslational modification events such as phosphorylation and sumoylation. These processes all contribute to the timing of Rad52 recruitment, its stability and function. Here, we summarize the regulatory events affecting the Rad52 protein and discuss how this regulation impacts DNA repair and cell survival.

Dynamics of pre-replicative complex assembly

The pre-replicative complex (pre-RC) is formed at all potential origins of replication through the action of the origin recognition complex (ORC), Cdc6, Cdt1, and the Mcm2-7 complex. The end result of pre-RC formation is the loading of the Mcm2-7 replicative helicase onto origin DNA. We examined pre-RC formation in vitro and found that it proceeds through separable binding events. Origin-bound ORC recruits Cdc6, and this ternary complex then promotes helicase loading in the presence of a pre-formed Mcm2-7-Cdt1 complex. Using a stepwise pre-RC assembly assay, we investigated the fate of pre-RC components during later stages of the reaction. We determined that helicase loading is accompanied by dissociation of ORC, Cdc6, and Cdt1 from origin DNA. This dissociation requires ATP hydrolysis at a late stage of pre-RC assembly. Our results indicate that pre-RC formation is a dynamic process.

Concerted loading of Mcm2-7 double hexamers around DNA during DNA replication origin licensing

The licensing of eukaryotic DNA replication origins, which ensures once-per-cell-cycle replication, involves the loading of six related minichromosome maintenance proteins (Mcm2-7) into prereplicative complexes (pre-RCs). Mcm2-7 forms the core of the replicative DNA helicase, which is inactive in the pre-RC. The loading of Mcm2-7 onto DNA requires the origin recognition complex (ORC), Cdc6, and Cdt1, and depends on ATP. We have reconstituted Mcm2-7 loading with purified budding yeast proteins. Using biochemical approaches and electron microscopy, we show that single heptamers of Cdt1*Mcm2-7 are loaded cooperatively and result in association of stable, head-to-head Mcm2-7 double hexamers connected via their N-terminal rings. DNA runs through a central channel in the double hexamer, and, once loaded, Mcm2-7 can slide passively along double-stranded DNA. Our work has significant implications for understanding how eukaryotic DNA replication origins are chosen and licensed, how replisomes assemble during initiation, and how unwinding occurs during DNA replication.

A double-hexameric MCM2-7 complex is loaded onto origin DNA during licensing of eukaryotic DNA replication

During pre-replication complex (pre-RC) formation, origin recognition complex (ORC), Cdc6, and Cdt1 cooperatively load the 6-subunit mini chromosome maintenance (MCM2-7) complex onto DNA. Loading of MCM2-7 is a prerequisite for DNA licensing that restricts DNA replication to once per cell cycle. During S phase MCM2-7 functions as part of the replicative helicase but within the pre-RC MCM2-7 is inactive. The organization of replicative DNA helicases before and after loading onto DNA has been studied in bacteria and viruses but not eukaryotes and is of major importance for understanding the MCM2-7 loading mechanism and replisome assembly. Lack of an efficient reconstituted pre-RC system has hindered the detailed mechanistic and structural analysis of MCM2-7 loading for a long time. We have reconstituted Saccharomyces cerevisiae pre-RC formation with purified proteins and showed efficient loading of MCM2-7 onto origin DNA in vitro. MCM2-7 loading was found to be dependent on the presence of all pre-RC proteins, origin DNA, and ATP hydrolysis. The quaternary structure of MCM2-7 changes during pre-RC formation: MCM2-7 before loading is a single hexamer in solution but is transformed into a double-hexamer during pre-RC formation. Using electron microscopy (EM), we observed that loaded MCM2-7 encircles DNA. The loaded MCM2-7 complex can slide on DNA, and sliding is not directional. Our results provide key insights into mechanisms of pre-RC formation and have important implications for understanding the role of the MCM2-7 in establishment of bidirectional replication forks.

Fragile genomic sites are associated with origins of replication

Genome rearrangements are mediators of evolution and disease. Such rearrangements are frequently bounded by transfer RNAs (tRNAs), transposable elements, and other repeated elements, suggesting a functional role for these elements in creating or repairing breakpoints. Though not well explored, there is evidence that origins of replication also colocalize with breakpoints. To investigate a potential correlation between breakpoints and origins, we analyzed evolutionary breakpoints defined between Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Kluyveromyces waltii and S. cerevisiae and a hypothetical ancestor of both yeasts, as well as breakpoints reported in the experimental literature. We find that origins correlate strongly with both evolutionary breakpoints and those described in the literature. Specifically, we find that origins firing earlier in S phase are more strongly correlated with breakpoints than are later-firing origins. Despite origins being located in genomic regions also bearing tRNAs and Ty elements, the correlation we observe between origins and breakpoints appears to be independent of these genomic features. This study lays the groundwork for understanding the mechanisms by which origins of replication may impact genome architecture and disease.

DNA replication initiation

DNA replication is fundamental to cellular life on earth, and replication initiation provides the primary point of control over this process. Replication initiation in all organisms involves the interaction of initiator proteins with one or more origins of replication in the DNA, with subsequent regulated assembly of two replisome complexes at each origin, melting of the DNA, and primed initiation of DNA synthesis on leading and lagging strands. Archaea and Eukarya share homologous systems for DNA replication initiation, but differ in the complexity of these; Bacteria appear to have analogous, rather than homologous, mechanisms for replication initiation. This chapter provides an overview of current knowledge of initiation of chromosomal DNA replication in the three domains of life.

Rad52 recruitment is DNA replication independent and regulated by Cdc28 and the Mec1 kinase

Recruitment of the homologous recombination machinery to sites of double-strand breaks is a cell cycle-regulated event requiring entry into S phase and CDK1 activity. Here, we demonstrate that the central recombination protein, Rad52, forms foci independent of DNA replication, and its recruitment requires B-type cyclin/CDK1 activity. Induction of the intra-S-phase checkpoint by hydroxyurea (HU) inhibits Rad52 focus formation in response to ionizing radiation. This inhibition is dependent upon Mec1/Tel1 kinase activity, as HU-treated cells form Rad52 foci in the presence of the PI3 kinase inhibitor caffeine. These Rad52 foci colocalize with foci formed by the replication clamp PCNA. These results indicate that Mec1 activity inhibits the recruitment of Rad52 to both sites of DNA damage and stalled replication forks during the intra-S-phase checkpoint. We propose that B-type cyclins promote the recruitment of Rad52 to sites of DNA damage, whereas Mec1 inhibits spurious recombination at stalled replication forks.

Single particle EM studies of the Drosophila melanogaster origin recognition complex and evidence for DNA wrapping

Hyperphosphorylation of the Drosophila melanogaster origin recognition complex (DmORC) by cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs) allows nucleotide binding but inhibits the ATPase activity of Orc1, and ablates the ATP-dependent interaction of ORC with DNA. Here we present single particle electron microscopy (EM) studies of ORC bound to nucleotide in both the dephosphorylated and hyper-phosphorylated states. 3D image reconstructions show that nucleotide binding gives rise to an analogous conformation independent of phosphorylation state. At the intermediate resolution achieved in our studies, ATP promotes changes along the toroidal core of the complex with negligible differences contributed by phosphorylation. Thus, hyperphosphorylation of DmORC does not induce meso-scale rearrangement of the ORC structure. To better understand ORC's role in origin remodeling, we performed atomic force microscopy (AFM) studies that show the contour length of a 688bp linear DNA fragment shortens by the equivalent of approximately 130bp upon ORC binding. This data, coupled with previous studies that showed a linking number change in circular DNA upon ORC binding, suggests that ORC may wrap the DNA in a manner akin to DnaA. Based on existing data and our structures, we propose a subunit arrangement for the AAA+ and winged helix domains, and in addition, speculate on a path of the 133bp of DNA around the ORC complex.

Separate roles for the DNA damage checkpoint protein kinases in stabilizing DNA replication forks

The DNA damage checkpoint plays a crucial role in maintaining functional DNA replication forks when cells are exposed to genotoxic agents. In budding yeast, the protein kinases Mec1 (ATR) and Rad53 (Chk2) are especially important in this process. How these kinases act to stabilize DNA replication forks is currently unknown but is likely to have important implications for understanding how genomic instability is generated during oncogenesis and how chemotherapies that interfere with DNA replication could be improved. Here we show that the sensitivity of rad53 mutants to DNA-damaging agents can be almost completely suppressed by deletion of the EXO1 gene, which encodes an enigmatic flap endonuclease. Deletion of EXO1 also suppresses DNA replication fork instability in rad53 mutants. Surprisingly, deletion of EXO1 is completely ineffective in suppressing both the sensitivity and replication fork breakdown in mec1 mutants, indicating that Mec1 has a genetically separable role in replication fork stabilization from Rad53. Finally, our analysis indicates that a second downstream effector kinase, Chk1, can stabilize replication forks in the absence of Rad53. These results reveal previously unappreciated complexity in the downstream targets of the checkpoint kinases and provide a framework for elucidating the mechanisms of DNA replication fork stabilization by these kinases.

Break dosage, cell cycle stage and DNA replication influence DNA double strand break response

DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) can be repaired by non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) or homology-directed repair (HR). HR requires nucleolytic degradation of 5' DNA ends to generate tracts of single-stranded DNA (ssDNA), which are also important for the activation of DNA damage checkpoints. Here we describe a quantitative analysis of DSB processing in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We show that resection of an HO endonuclease-induced DSB is less extensive than previously estimated and provide evidence for significant instability of the 3' ssDNA tails. We show that both DSB resection and checkpoint activation are dose-dependent, especially during the G1 phase of the cell cycle. During G1, processing near the break is inhibited by competition with NHEJ, but extensive resection is regulated by an NHEJ-independent mechanism. DSB processing and checkpoint activation are more efficient in G2/M than in G1 phase, but are most efficient at breaks encountered by DNA replication forks during S phase. Our findings identify unexpected complexity of DSB processing and its regulation, and provide a framework for further mechanistic insights.

CDC6: from DNA replication to cell cycle checkpoints and oncogenesis

Cell division cycle 6 (CDC6) is an essential regulator of DNA replication in eukaryotic cells. Its best-characterized function is the assembly of prereplicative complexes at origins of replication during the G(1) phase of the cell division cycle. However, CDC6 also plays important roles in the activation and maintenance of the checkpoint mechanisms that coordinate S phase and mitosis, and recent studies have unveiled its proto-oncogenic activity. CDC6 overexpression interferes with the expression of INK4/ARF tumor suppressor genes through a mechanism involving the epigenetic modification of chromatin at the INK4/ARF locus. In addition, CDC6 overexpression in primary cells may promote DNA hyperreplication and induce a senescence response similar to that caused by oncogene activation. These findings indicate that deregulation of CDC6 expression in human cells poses a serious risk of carcinogenesis.

A tensor higher-order singular value decomposition for integrative analysis of DNA microarray data from different studies

We describe the use of a higher-order singular value decomposition (HOSVD) in transforming a data tensor of genes x "x-settings," that is, different settings of the experimental variable x x "y-settings," which tabulates DNA microarray data from different studies, to a "core tensor" of "eigenarrays" x "x-eigengenes" x "y-eigengenes." Reformulating this multilinear HOSVD such that it decomposes the data tensor into a linear superposition of all outer products of an eigenarray, an x- and a y-eigengene, that is, rank-1 "subtensors," we define the significance of each subtensor in terms of the fraction of the overall information in the data tensor that it captures. We illustrate this HOSVD with an integration of genome-scale mRNA expression data from three yeast cell cycle time courses, two of which are under exposure to either hydrogen peroxide or menadione. We find that significant subtensors represent independent biological programs or experimental phenomena. The picture that emerges suggests that the conserved genes YKU70, MRE11, AIF1, and ZWF1, and the processes of retrotransposition, apoptosis, and the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway that these genes are involved in, may play significant, yet previously unrecognized, roles in the differential effects of hydrogen peroxide and menadione on cell cycle progression. A genome-scale correlation between DNA replication initiation and RNA transcription, which is equivalent to a recently discovered correlation and might be due to a previously unknown mechanism of regulation, is independently uncovered.

Regulation of rtt107 recruitment to stalled DNA replication forks by the cullin rtt101 and the rtt109 acetyltransferase

RTT107 (ESC4, YHR154W) encodes a BRCA1 C-terminal domain protein that is important for recovery from DNA damage during S phase. Rtt107 is a substrate of the checkpoint kinase Mec1, and it forms complexes with DNA repair enzymes, including the nuclease subunit Slx4, but the role of Rtt107 in the DNA damage response remains unclear. We find that Rtt107 interacts with chromatin when cells are treated with compounds that cause replication forks to arrest. This damage-dependent chromatin binding requires the acetyltransferase Rtt109, but it does not require acetylation of the known Rtt109 target, histone H3-K56. Chromatin binding of Rtt107 also requires the cullin Rtt101, which seems to play a direct role in Rtt107 recruitment, because the two proteins are found in complex with each other. Finally, we provide evidence that Rtt107 is bound at or near stalled replication forks in vivo. Together, these results indicate that Rtt109, Rtt101, and Rtt107, which genetic evidence suggests are functionally related, form a DNA damage response pathway that recruits Rtt107 complexes to damaged or stalled replication forks.

Identification and characterization of human cdc7 nuclear retention and export sequences in the context of chromatin binding

The Cdc7 serine/threonine kinase activates the initiation of DNA replication by phosphorylating MCM proteins that are bound to the origins of DNA replication. We reported previously that human Cdc7 nuclear import is mediated directly by importin-beta through its binding to the Cdc7 nuclear localization sequence (NLS). Here, we report that human Cdc7 nuclear localization is regulated by two additional elements: nuclear retention (NRS) and export sequences (NES). Cdc7 proteins imported into the nucleus are retained in the nucleus by associating with chromatin, for which NRS-(306-326) is essential. Importantly, this binding appears to be specific to the origin of DNA replication, because the binding of wild-type Cdc7 to origin is 2.4-fold higher than to non-origin DNA. Furthermore, an NRS-defective Cdc7 mutant could not be retained in the nucleus, although it was imported into the nucleus normally. Together, our data suggest that NRS plays an important role in the activation of DNA replication by Cdc7. The Cdc7 proteins unassociated with chromatin are bound by CRM1 via two NES elements: NES1 at 458-467 within kinase insert III, and NES2 at 545-554 within the kinase IX domain. The primary function of the Cdc7-CRM1 association may be to translocate nuclear Cdc7 to the cytoplasm. However, the binding of CRM1 with Cdc7 at NES2 raises an interesting possibility that CRM1 may also down-regulate Cdc7 by masking its kinase domain.

Human Mcm10 regulates the catalytic subunit of DNA polymerase-alpha and prevents DNA damage during replication

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, minichromosome maintenance protein (Mcm) 10 interacts with DNA polymerase (pol)-alpha and functions as a nuclear chaperone for the catalytic subunit, which is rapidly degraded in the absence of Mcm10. We report here that the interaction between Mcm10 and pol-alpha is conserved in human cells. We used a small interfering RNA-based approach to deplete Mcm10 in HeLa cells, and we observed that the catalytic subunit of pol-alpha, p180, was degraded with similar kinetics as Mcm10, whereas the regulatory pol-alpha subunit, p68, remained unaffected. Simultaneous loss of Mcm10 and p180 inhibited S phase entry and led to an accumulation of already replicating cells in late S/G2 as a result of DNA damage, which triggered apoptosis in a subpopulation of cells. These phenotypes differed considerably from analogous studies in Drosophila embryo cells that did not exhibit a similar arrest. To further dissect the roles of Mcm10 and p180 in human cells, we depleted p180 alone and observed a significant delay in S phase entry and fork progression but little effect on cell viability. These results argue that cells can tolerate low levels of p180 as long as Mcm10 is present to "recycle" it. Thus, human Mcm10 regulates both replication initiation and elongation and maintains genome integrity.

Localization and organization of protein factors involved in chromosome inheritance in Dictyostelium discoideum

Heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1) proteins are highly conserved heterochromatin components required for genomic integrity. We have previously shown that the two HP1 isoforms expressed in Dictyostelium, HcpA and HcpB, are mainly localized to (peri-)centromeric heterochromatin and have largely overlapping functions. However, they cause distinct phenotypes when overexpressed. We show here that these isoforms display quantitative differences in dimerization behavior. Dimerization preference, as well as the mutant phenotype in overexpression strains, depends on the C-terminus containing the hinge and chromo shadow domains. Both Hcp proteins are targeted to distinct subnuclear regions by different chromo shadow domain-dependent and -independent mechanisms. In addition, both proteins bind to DNA and RNA in vitro and binding is independent of the chromo shadow domain. Thus, this DNA and/or RNA binding activity may contribute to protein targeting. To further characterize heterochromatin, we cloned the Dictyostelium homolog of the origin recognition complex subunit 2 (OrcB). OrcB localizes to distinct subnuclear foci that were also targeted by HcpA. In addition, it is associated with the centrosome throughout the cell cycle. The results indicate that, similar to Orc2 homologs from other organisms, it is required for different processes in chromosome inheritance.

Deletion of the cruciform binding domain in CBP/14-3-3 displays reduced origin binding and initiation of DNA replication in budding yeast

Background

Initiation of eukaryotic DNA replication involves many protein-protein and protein-DNA interactions. We have previously shown that 14-3-3 proteins bind cruciform DNA and associate with mammalian and yeast replication origins in a cell cycle dependent manner.

Results

By expressing the human 14-3-3ε, as the sole member of 14-3-3 proteins family in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we show that 14-3-3ε complements the S. cerevisiae Bmh1/Bmh2 double knockout, conserves its cruciform binding activity, and associates in vivo with the yeast replication origins ARS307. Deletion of the α5-helix, the potential cruciform binding domain of 14-3-3, decreased the cruciform binding activity of the protein as well as its association with the yeast replication origins ARS307 and ARS1. Furthermore, the mutant cells had a reduced ability to stably maintain plasmids bearing one or multiple origins.

Conclusion

14-3-3, a cruciform DNA binding protein, associates with yeast origins of replication and functions as an initiator of DNA replication, presumably through binding to cruciform DNA forming at yeast replicators.

Strength in numbers: preventing rereplication via multiple mechanisms in eukaryotic cells

In eukaryotic cells, prereplication complexes (pre-RCs) are assembled on chromatin in the G1 phase, rendering origins of DNA replication competent to initiate DNA synthesis. When DNA replication commences in S phase, pre-RCs are disassembled, and multiple initiations from the same origin do not occur because new rounds of pre-RC assembly are inhibited. In most experimental organisms, multiple mechanisms that prevent pre-RC assembly have now been identified, and rereplication within the same cell cycle can be induced through defined perturbations of these mechanisms. This review summarizes the diverse array of inhibitory pathways used by different organisms to prevent pre-RC assembly, and focuses on the challenge of understanding how in any one cell type, various mechanisms cooperate to strictly enforce once per cell cycle regulation of DNA replication.

Genome-wide localization of pre-RC sites and identification of replication origins in fission yeast

DNA replication of eukaryotic chromosomes initiates at a number of discrete loci, called replication origins. Distribution and regulation of origins are important for complete duplication of the genome. Here, we determined locations of Orc1 and Mcm6, components of pre-replicative complex (pre-RC), on the whole genome of Schizosaccharomyces pombe using a high-resolution tiling array. Pre-RC sites were identified in 460 intergenic regions, where Orc1 and Mcm6 colocalized. By mapping of 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU)-incorporated DNA in the presence of hydroxyurea (HU), 307 pre-RC sites were identified as early-firing origins. In contrast, 153 pre-RC sites without BrdU incorporation were considered to be late and/or inefficient origins. Inactivation of replication checkpoint by Cds1 deletion resulted in BrdU incorporation with HU specifically at the late origins. Early and late origins tend to distribute separately in large chromosome regions. Interestingly, pericentromeric heterochromatin and the silent mating-type locus replicated in the presence of HU, whereas the inner centromere or subtelomeric heterochromatin did not. Notably, MCM did not bind to inner centromeres where origin recognition complex was located. Thus, replication is differentially regulated in chromosome domains.

Genomic signal processing: from matrix algebra to genetic networks

DNA microarrays make it possible, for the first time, to record the complete genomic signals that guide the progression of cellular processes. Future discovery in biology and medicine will come from the mathematical modeling of these data, which hold the key to fundamental understanding of life on the molecular level, as well as answers to questions regarding diagnosis, treatment, and drug development. This chapter reviews the first data-driven models that were created from these genome-scale data, through adaptations and generalizations of mathematical frameworks from matrix algebra that have proven successful in describing the physical world, in such diverse areas as mechanics and perception: the singular value decomposition model, the generalized singular value decomposition model comparative model, and the pseudoinverse projection integrative model. These models provide mathematical descriptions of the genetic networks that generate and sense the measured data, where the mathematical variables and operations represent biological reality. The variables, patterns uncovered in the data, correlate with activities of cellular elements such as regulators or transcription factors that drive the measured signals and cellular states where these elements are active. The operations, such as data reconstruction, rotation, and classification in subspaces of selected patterns, simulate experimental observation of only the cellular programs that these patterns represent. These models are illustrated in the analyses of RNA expression data from yeast and human during their cell cycle programs and DNA-binding data from yeast cell cycle transcription factors and replication initiation proteins. Two alternative pictures of RNA expression oscillations during the cell cycle that emerge from these analyses, which parallel well-known designs of physical oscillators, convey the capacity of the models to elucidate the design principles of cellular systems, as well as guide the design of synthetic ones. In these analyses, the power of the models to predict previously unknown biological principles is demonstrated with a prediction of a novel mechanism of regulation that correlates DNA replication initiation with cell cycle-regulated RNA transcription in yeast. These models may become the foundation of a future in which biological systems are modeled as physical systems are today.

Multiple functions of the origin recognition complex

The origin recognition complex (ORC), a heteromeric six-subunit protein, is a central component for eukaryotic DNA replication. The ORC binds to DNA at replication origin sites in an ATP-dependent manner and serves as a scaffold for the assembly of other key initiation factors. Sequence rules for ORC-DNA binding appear to vary widely. In budding yeast the ORC recognizes specific ori elements, however, in higher eukaryotes origin site selection does not appear to depend on the specific DNA sequence. In metazoans, during cell cycle progression, one or more of the ORC subunits can be modified in such a way that ORC activity is inhibited until mitosis is complete and a nuclear membrane is assembled. In addition to its well-documented role in the initiation of DNA replication, the ORC is also involved in other cell functions. Some of these activities directly link cell cycle progression with DNA replication, while other functions seem distinct from replication. The function of ORCs in the establishment of transcriptionally repressed regions is described for many species and may be a conserved feature common for both unicellular eukaryotes and metazoans. ORC subunits were found at centrosomes, at the cell membranes, at the cytokinesis furrows of dividing cells, as well as at the kinetochore. The exact mechanism of these localizations remains to be determined, however, latest results support the idea that ORC proteins participate in multiple aspects of the chromosome inheritance cycle. In this review, we discuss the participation of ORC proteins in various cell functions, in addition to the canonical role of ORC in initiating DNA replication.