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Guarda G, Braun M, Staehli F, Tardivel A, Mattmann C, Förster I, Farlik M, Decker T, Du Pasquier RA, Romero P, Tschopp J. Type I interferon inhibits interleukin-1 production and inflammasome activation. Immunity 2011; 34:213-23. [PMID: 21349431 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2011.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 715] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2010] [Revised: 10/22/2010] [Accepted: 12/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Type I interferon (IFN) is a common therapy for autoimmune and inflammatory disorders, yet the mechanisms of action are largely unknown. Here we showed that type I IFN inhibited interleukin-1 (IL-1) production through two distinct mechanisms. Type I IFN signaling, via the STAT1 transcription factor, repressed the activity of the NLRP1 and NLRP3 inflammasomes, thereby suppressing caspase-1-dependent IL-1β maturation. In addition, type I IFN induced IL-10 in a STAT1-dependent manner; autocrine IL-10 then signaled via STAT3 to reduce the abundance of pro-IL-1α and pro-IL-1β. In vivo, poly(I:C)-induced type I IFN diminished IL-1β production in response to alum and Candida albicans, thus increasing susceptibility to this fungal pathogen. Importantly, monocytes from multiple sclerosis patients undergoing IFN-β treatment produced substantially less IL-1β than monocytes derived from healthy donors. Our findings may thus explain the effectiveness of type I IFN in the treatment of inflammatory diseases but also the observed "weakening" of the immune system after viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greta Guarda
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Lausanne, Epalinges, Switzerland
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52
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McFarland AP, Savan R, Wagage S, Addison A, Ramakrishnan K, Karwan M, Duong T, Young HA. Localized delivery of interferon-β by Lactobacillus exacerbates experimental colitis. PLoS One 2011; 6:e16967. [PMID: 21365015 PMCID: PMC3041828 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0016967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2010] [Accepted: 01/19/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There have been conflicting reports of the role of Type I interferons (IFN) in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Clinical trials have shown potent efficacy of systemic interferon-beta (IFN-β) in inducing remission of ulcerative colitis. Likewise, IFNAR1(-/-) mice display an increased sensitivity to dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis, suggesting Type I IFN play a protective role during inflammation of the gut. Curiously, however, there have also been reports detailing the spontaneous development of IBD in patients receiving systemic IFN-β therapy for multiple sclerosis or hepatitis. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS To investigate the effects of local administration of IFN-β on a murine model of colitis, we developed a transgenic Lactobacillus acidophilus strain that constitutively expresses IFN-β (La-IFN-β). While pretreatment of mice with control Lactobacillus (La-EV) provided slight protective benefits, La-IFN-β increased sensitivity to DSS. Analysis showed colitic mice pretreated with La-IFN-β had increased production of TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-17A and IL-13 by intestinal tissues and decreased regulatory T cells (Tregs) in their small intestine. Examination of CD103(+) dendritic cells (DCs) in the Peyer's patches revealed that IFNAR1 expression was dramatically reduced by La-IFN-β. Similarly, bone marrow-derived DCs matured with La-IFN-β experienced a 3-fold reduction of IFNAR1 and were impaired in their ability to induce Tregs. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Our IFNAR1 expression data identifies a correlation between the loss/downregulation of IFNAR1 on DCs and exacerbation of colitis. Our data show that Lactobacillus secreting IFN-β has an immunological effect that in our model results in the exacerbation of colitis. This study underscores that the selection of therapeutics delivered by a bacterial vehicle must take into consideration the simultaneous effects of the vehicle itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adelle P. McFarland
- Cancer and Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Ram Savan
- Cancer and Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sagie Wagage
- Cancer and Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Augustina Addison
- Cancer and Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Karthika Ramakrishnan
- Cancer and Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Megan Karwan
- Cancer and Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Tri Duong
- Department of Food, Bioprocessing and Nutrition Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Howard A. Young
- Cancer and Inflammation Program, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland, United States of America
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53
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Wang H, Brown J, Garcia CA, Tang Y, Benakanakere MR, Greenway T, Alard P, Kinane DF, Martin M. The role of glycogen synthase kinase 3 in regulating IFN-β-mediated IL-10 production. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 186:675-84. [PMID: 21160051 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1001473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The ability of IFN-β to induce IL-10 production from innate immune cells is important for its anti-inflammatory properties and is believed to contribute to its therapeutic value in treating multiple sclerosis patients. In this study, we identified that IFN-β stimulates IL-10 production by activating the JAK1- and PI3K-signaling pathways. JAK1 activity was required for IFN-β to activate PI3K and Akt1 that resulted in repression of glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3)-β activity. IFN-β-mediated suppression of GSK3-β promoted IL-10, because IL-10 production by IFN-β-stimulated dendritic cells (DC) expressing an active GSK3-β knockin was severely reduced, whereas pharmacological or genetic inhibition of GSK3-β augmented IL-10 production. IFN-β increased the phosphorylated levels of CREB and STAT3 but only CREB levels were affected by PI3K. Also, a knockdown in CREB, but not STAT3, affected the capacity of IFN-β to induce IL-10 from DC. IL-10 production by IFN-β-stimulated DC was shown to suppress IFN-γ and IL-17 production by myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-specific CD4(+) T cells, and this IL-10-dependent anti-inflammatory effect was enhanced by directly targeting GSK3 in DC. These findings highlight how IFN-β induces IL-10 production and the importance that IL-10 plays in its anti-inflammatory properties, as well as identify a therapeutic target that could be used to increase the IL-10-dependent anti-inflammatory properties of IFN-β.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huizhi Wang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
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54
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Goossens P, Gijbels MJJ, Zernecke A, Eijgelaar W, Vergouwe MN, van der Made I, Vanderlocht J, Beckers L, Buurman WA, Daemen MJAP, Kalinke U, Weber C, Lutgens E, de Winther MPJ. Myeloid type I interferon signaling promotes atherosclerosis by stimulating macrophage recruitment to lesions. Cell Metab 2010; 12:142-53. [PMID: 20674859 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2010.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2009] [Revised: 01/05/2010] [Accepted: 06/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Inflammatory cytokines are well-recognized mediators of atherosclerosis. Depending on the pathological context, type I interferons (IFNs; IFNalpha and IFNbeta) exert either pro- or anti-inflammatory immune functions, but their exact role in atherogenesis has not been clarified. Here, we demonstrate that IFNbeta enhances macrophage-endothelial cell adhesion and promotes leukocyte attraction to atherosclerosis-prone sites in mice in a chemokine-dependent manner. Moreover, IFNbeta treatment accelerates lesion formation in two different mouse models of atherosclerosis and increases macrophage accumulation in the plaques. Concomitantly, absence of endogenous type I IFN signaling in myeloid cells inhibits lesion development, protects against lesional accumulation of macrophages, and prevents necrotic core formation. Finally, we show that type I IFN signaling is upregulated in ruptured human atherosclerotic plaques. Hereby, we identify type I IFNs as proatherosclerotic cytokines that may serve as additional targets for prevention or treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pieter Goossens
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
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55
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Abstract
Type I interferons are pleiotropic cytokines with antiviral, antitumor and immunoregulatory functions. An aspect of their complex biology is the paradox that, depending on context, type I interferons can be anti-inflammatory and tissue protective or can be proinflammatory and promote autoimmunity. Along these lines, the activation of type I interferon pathways is effective in suppressing disease activity in patients with multiple sclerosis and in animal models of arthritis and colitis, while there is an expectation that blockade of the same pathways will be beneficial in the treatment of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus.
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Affiliation(s)
- George D Kalliolias
- Arthritis and Tissue Degeneration Program and Department of Medicine, Hospital for Special Surgery, 535 East 70th Street, New York, NY 10021, USA
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56
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Exacerbated innate host response to SARS-CoV in aged non-human primates. PLoS Pathog 2010; 6:e1000756. [PMID: 20140198 PMCID: PMC2816697 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2009] [Accepted: 01/06/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The emergence of viral respiratory pathogens with pandemic potential, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and influenza A H5N1, urges the need for deciphering their pathogenesis to develop new intervention strategies. SARS-CoV infection causes acute lung injury (ALI) that may develop into life-threatening acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) with advanced age correlating positively with adverse disease outcome. The molecular pathways, however, that cause virus-induced ALI/ARDS in aged individuals are ill-defined. Here, we show that SARS-CoV-infected aged macaques develop more severe pathology than young adult animals, even though viral replication levels are similar. Comprehensive genomic analyses indicate that aged macaques have a stronger host response to virus infection than young adult macaques, with an increase in differential expression of genes associated with inflammation, with NF-κB as central player, whereas expression of type I interferon (IFN)-β is reduced. Therapeutic treatment of SARS-CoV-infected aged macaques with type I IFN reduces pathology and diminishes pro-inflammatory gene expression, including interleukin-8 (IL-8) levels, without affecting virus replication in the lungs. Thus, ALI in SARS-CoV-infected aged macaques developed as a result of an exacerbated innate host response. The anti-inflammatory action of type I IFN reveals a potential intervention strategy for virus-induced ALI. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) infection causes acute lung injury that may develop into the life-threatening acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in mostly elderly individuals. Although SARS-CoV infection can be fatal, most patients recover, suggesting that protective host responses are operational to combat the viral infection. Therefore, we used age as predisposing factor to obtain insight into the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV. In this study, we show that SARS-CoV-infected aged macaques developed significantly more pathology than young adult animals, which could not be contributed to differences in viral replication. Using comparative microarray analyses, it was shown that although the nature of the host response to SARS-CoV infection was similar in aged and young adult macaques, the severity was significantly different, with aged macaques displaying an increase in differential expression of genes associated with inflammation. Interestingly, type I IFN-β mRNA levels correlated negatively with gross pathology. Therapeutic treatment of aged macaques with type I IFN reduced pathology without affecting virus replication. However, pro-inflammatory gene expression was significantly diminished. Thus, modulation of the host response by type I IFNs provides a promising outlook for novel intervention strategies.
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Du S, Sandoval F, Trinh P, Voskuhl RR. Additive effects of combination treatment with anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective agents in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neuroimmunol 2009; 219:64-74. [PMID: 20006910 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2009.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2009] [Revised: 11/17/2009] [Accepted: 11/24/2009] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
We studied the effects of combination treatment with an anti-inflammatory agent, interferon (IFN)-beta, and a putative neuroprotective agent, an estrogen receptor (ER)-beta ligand, during EAE. Combination treatment significantly attenuated EAE disease severity, preserved axonal densities in spinal cord, and reduced CNS inflammation. Combining ERbeta treatment with IFNbeta reduced IL-17, while it abrogated IFNbeta-mediated increases in Th1 and Th2 cytokines from splenocytes. Additionally, combination treatment reduced VLA-4 expression on CD4+ T cells, while it abrogated IFNbeta-mediated decreases in MMP-9. Our data demonstrate that combination treatments can result in complex effects that could not have been predicted based on monotherapy data alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sienmi Du
- University of California, Los Angeles, Department of Neurology, UCLA Multiple Sclerosis Program, 635 Charles E Young Drive South, Neuroscience Research Building 1, Room 479, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
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Reply. Am J Ophthalmol 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ajo.2009.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Goriely S, Cavoy R, Goldman M. Interleukin-12 family members and type I interferons in Th17-mediated inflammatory disorders. Allergy 2009; 64:702-9. [PMID: 19383026 DOI: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2009.02039.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Cytokines produced by antigen-presenting cells govern the fate of helper T-cell responses. Herein, we review the impact of interleukin (IL)-23 and IL-27 on the outcome of T-helper (Th) 17 cell responses and discuss their impact in the pathogenesis of T-cell-mediated inflammatory disorders of autoimmune or allergic origin. We then discuss how type I interferons might influence the course of autoimmune diseases by tipping the balance between IL-12 family members.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Goriely
- Institute for Medical Immunology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Charleroi, Belgium
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60
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Barca O, Costoya JA, Señarís RM, Arce VM. Interferon-beta protects astrocytes against tumour necrosis factor-induced apoptosis via activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. Exp Cell Res 2008; 314:2231-7. [PMID: 18501892 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2008.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2007] [Revised: 02/19/2008] [Accepted: 04/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Several large clinical trials have demonstrated that interferon-beta (IFN-beta) therapy is effective in the treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients. However, the mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of IFN-beta are not fully understood. Most of the effort in the study of the relevant mechanisms of IFN-beta has dealt with its immunomodulatory actions. However, the beneficial effects of IFN-beta in MS patients may also depend on non-immune mechanisms, including the modulation of astrocyte function. In the present work, we have found that IFN-beta treatment protects astrocytes against tumour necrosis factor-induced apoptosis via activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. We propose that this effect may be of importance to protect astrocytes against apoptosis within the demyelinated plaques of the MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Barca
- Departamento de Fisioloxía, Facultade de Medicina, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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61
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Benveniste EN, Qin H. Type I interferons as anti-inflammatory mediators. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 2007:pe70. [PMID: 18073382 DOI: 10.1126/stke.4162007pe70] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The type I interferons (IFNs), IFN-alpha and IFN-beta, are cytokines that have antiviral, antiproliferative, and immunomodulatory activities. Data are now emerging that suggest that type I IFNs are also important mediators of anti-inflammatory responses. These findings, largely driven by studies to explain the beneficial effects of IFN-beta in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system, offer a number of mechanisms for the anti-inflammatory properties of type I IFNs. Type I IFNs, through their ability to induce the immunosuppressive cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10), mediate the inhibition of proinflammatory gene products. In addition, type I IFNs induce other immunosuppressive mediators such as suppressor of cytokine signaling-1 (SOCS-1) and tristetrapolin (TTP), which act by divergent mechanisms to restore homeostasis to the immune system. Furthermore, type I IFNs mediate anti-inflammatory and protective effects in a variety of autoimmune disease models such as experimental colitis, experimental allergic encephalomyelitis, experimental arthritis, and neonatal inflammation. Here, we discuss the molecular basis for the anti-inflammatory properties of type I IFNs and their therapeutic potential in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etty N Benveniste
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-0005, USA.
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62
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Zhao X, Nozell S, Ma Z, Benveniste EN. The interferon-stimulated gene factor 3 complex mediates the inhibitory effect of interferon-beta on matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression. FEBS J 2007; 274:6456-68. [PMID: 18028425 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2007.06163.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) displays a preference for a broad range of substrates including extracellular matrix proteins and cytokines. MMP-9 plays an important role in physiological processes, as well as in inflammatory diseases and numerous cancers. Interferon-beta is a pleiotropic cytokine with antiviral, antiproliferative and immunomodulatory activities. Interferon-beta positively regulates gene expression, predominantly through the Janus kinase-signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) pathway. However, little is known about the mechanisms used by interferon-beta to negatively regulate gene expression. In the present study, we show that interferon-beta inhibits MMP-9 gene expression at the transcriptional level. Using cell lines deficient in three components of the interferon-beta-activated interferon-stimulated gene factor 3 (ISGF3) complex (i.e. STAT-1, STAT-2 and interferon regulatory factor 9), the results of our study indicate that all three members are required for interferon-beta inhibition. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays demonstrate that interferon-beta reduces recruitment of transcriptional activators and coactivators, such as nuclear factor kappa B p65, Sp1, CREB-binding protein and p300, to the MMP-9 promoter, and decreases the degree of histone acetylation at the MMP-9 promoter. This occurs in the absence of an association of the ISGF3 complex with the MMP-9 promoter. Taken together, these data define the role of interferon-beta and the ISGF3 members in suppressing MMP-9 gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueyan Zhao
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, AL 53294-0005, USA
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63
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Abstract
This article analyzes the conceptual and technological context in which, over a period of 50 years, exploration of the biological and clinical significance of type I interferon has evolved. The elaboration of techniques for production and purification of mouse and human interferons and the establishment of laboratory-size production units have been of crucial importance in this process. Animal experiments have been invaluable for elucidation of mechanisms underlying the in vivo antiviral, anti-tumour and immunomodulatory potential of interferon, but have been of limited help to define the areas of clinical applicability. Proof of principle for applications as they are established today has come from clinical trials performed quite independently of evidence from animal experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfons Billiau
- Rega Institute, University of Leuven, Minderbroedersstraat 10, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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Chang EY, Guo B, Doyle SE, Cheng G. Cutting Edge: Involvement of the Type I IFN Production and Signaling Pathway in Lipopolysaccharide-Induced IL-10 Production. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 178:6705-9. [PMID: 17513714 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.11.6705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages respond to LPS by the rapid activation of proinflammatory cytokines that serve to initiate host defense against microbial invasion. To prevent injury to the host from excess production of these cytokines, IL-10 is up-regulated to feedback inhibit the proinflammatory response. However, the molecular events responsible for LPS-induced up-regulation of IL-10 remain to be elucidated. In this study, we provide evidence that production of and signaling by type I IFN is required for LPS-induced IL-10 up-regulation. In addition, we demonstrate that defect in type I IFN production and signaling results in a trend toward LPS-mediated superinduction of proinflammatory genes and cytokines in bone marrow-derived macrophages. Our findings suggest a novel anti-inflammatory role for the type I IFN production and signaling pathway in regulating LPS response in bone marrow-derived macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elmer Y Chang
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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Cinatl J, Michaelis M, Doerr HW. The threat of avian influenza A (H5N1). Part III: antiviral therapy. Med Microbiol Immunol 2007; 196:203-12. [PMID: 17431677 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-007-0048-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Among emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases, influenza constitutes one of the major threats to mankind. In this review series epidemiologic, virologic and pathologic concerns raised by infections of humans with avian influenza virus A/H5N1 as well as treatment options are discussed. The third part discusses therapeutic options. Neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors are the most promising agents despite uncertainty about efficacy. Dosage increase, prolonged treatment or combination therapies may increase treatment efficacy and/or inhibit resistance formation. Immune system dysregulation contributes to H5N1 disease. Although current evidence does not support the use of anti-inflammatory drugs beneficial effects cannot be excluded at later disease stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jindrich Cinatl
- Institute for Medical Virology, Hospital of the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Paul-Ehrlich-Str. 40, 60596, Frankfurt/M, Germany.
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