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Khonmee J, Brown JL, Rojanasthien S, Aunsusin A, Thumasanukul D, Kongphoemphun A, Siriaroonrat B, Tipkantha W, Punyapornwithaya V, Thitaram C. Gender, season and management affect fecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations in captive goral (Naemorhedus griseus) in Thailand. PLoS One 2014; 9:e91633. [PMID: 24637886 PMCID: PMC3956719 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0091633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2013] [Accepted: 02/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Chinese goral (Naemorhedus griseus) are a threatened species in Thailand and the focus of captive breeding for possible reintroduction. However, little is known of their biology or what factors in the captive environment affect welfare. Our objective was to determine the impact of gender, season, and management on goral adrenal activity. We hypothesized that differences in fecal glucocorticoid concentrations would be related to animal density. Fecal samples were collected 3 days/week for 1 year from 63 individuals (n = 32 males, 31 females) at two facilities that house the majority of goral in Thailand: Omkoi Wildlife Sanctuary (Omkoi), an off-exhibit breeding center that houses goral in individual pens (16 pens; n = 8 males, 8 females) and in small family groups (8 pens; n = 8 males, 8 females); and the Chiang Mai Night Safari (NS), a zoo that maintains 31 goral (n = 17 males, 14 females) in one large pen. Glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations were higher in male than female goral at Omkoi throughout the year, and there was a seasonal effect on adrenal activity (p<0.05). Goral at Omkoi and NS were used to test the effect of animal density on fecal glucocorticoid excretion of goral housed in similar-sized enclosures. Overall, the highest levels were found at NS (n = 31 adults/pen; 27 m2 per animal) compared to Omkoi (n = 2 adults/pen; 400 m2 per animal) (p<0.05). Overall findings support our hypothesis that animal density and aspects of the captive environment impact adrenal steroid activity in captive goral. In addition, gender and season also had significant effects on glucocorticoid metabolite production. Potential stressors pertaining to the welfare of this species were identified, which will guide future efforts to improve management and create self-sustaining and healthy populations of this threatened species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaruwan Khonmee
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- * E-mail: (JK); (CT)
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, Virginia, United States of America
| | | | | | - Dissakul Thumasanukul
- Omkoi Wildlife Sanctuary, Department of National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Adisorn Kongphoemphun
- Omkoi Wildlife Sanctuary, Department of National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Boripat Siriaroonrat
- Conservation Research and Education Division, Zoological Park Organization, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Wanlaya Tipkantha
- Conservation Research and Education Division, Zoological Park Organization, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- * E-mail: (JK); (CT)
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Farrand A, Hosey G, Buchanan-Smith HM. The visitor effect in petting zoo-housed animals: Aversive or enriching? Appl Anim Behav Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2013.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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53
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Rodas-Martínez AZ, Canales D, Brousset DM, Swanson WF, Romano MC. Assessment of adrenocortical and gonadal hormones in male spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) following capture, restraint and anesthesia. Zoo Biol 2013; 32:641-7. [DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2013] [Revised: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 09/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alba Zulema Rodas-Martínez
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biofísica y Neurociencias; Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados del I. P. N.; Mexico D.F. México
- Departamento de Etología; Fauna Silvestre y Animales de Laboratorio de la Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia de la UNAM; Mexico D.F. México
| | | | - Dulce María Brousset
- Departamento de Etología; Fauna Silvestre y Animales de Laboratorio de la Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia de la UNAM; Mexico D.F. México
| | - William F. Swanson
- Center or Conservation and Research of Endangered Wildlife; Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden; Cincinnati Ohio USA
| | - Marta C. Romano
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biofísica y Neurociencias; Centro de Investigación y Estudios Avanzados del I. P. N.; Mexico D.F. México
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Rimbach R, Heymann EW, Link A, Heistermann M. Validation of an enzyme immunoassay for assessing adrenocortical activity and evaluation of factors that affect levels of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites in two New World primates. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2013; 191:13-23. [PMID: 23707497 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2013.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2013] [Revised: 04/25/2013] [Accepted: 05/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Non-invasive methods to assess stress hormone output via fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGCMs) have become a powerful tool in behavioral studies and conservation biology because they allow exploring the link between behavior, an animal's socio-ecological environment and its adrenocortical activity. However, FGCM levels are influenced by numerous other factors which often confound their interpretation. Thus, before applying these methods, knowledge on the impact of these factors is important. In this study we investigated the effect of (1) time of day, (2) age, (3) sex and (4) female reproductive state on FGCM levels in brown spider monkeys (Ateles hybridus) and red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus). Initially, we validated a 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone enzyme immunoassay for monitoring the physiological stress response via fecal analysis in both species. We determined FGCM levels in fecal samples collected from two and six groups of wild spider monkeys (n=461 samples) and howler monkeys (n=166 samples), respectively. Our analyses revealed a strong effect of time of day on FGCM levels in spider monkeys, but no effect in howler monkeys. Adults of both species had significantly higher FGCM levels than subadults. In neither of the two species we found a sex-effect on FGCM output. Reproductive condition strongly affected FGCM levels in female spider monkeys which showed increasing concentrations with progressing gestation. This was not investigated in female howler monkeys due to an insufficient sample size. Our data indicate that the influence of the tested factors on fecal glucocorticoid metabolite output is species-specific, and that these variables need to be considered when interpreting FGCM levels in the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Rimbach
- Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center, Kellnerweg 4, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany.
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55
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Narayan E, Hero JM, Evans N, Nicolson V, Muccib A. Non-invasive evaluation of physiological stress hormone responses in a captive population of the greater bilby Macrotis lagotis. ENDANGER SPECIES RES 2012. [DOI: 10.3354/esr00454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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56
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Azevedo CSD, Lima MFF, Silva VCAD, Young RJ, Rodrigues M. Visitor Influence on the Behavior of Captive Greater Rheas (Rhea americana, Rheidae Aves). J APPL ANIM WELF SCI 2012; 15:113-25. [DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2012.624895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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57
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Stoinski TS, Jaicks HF, Drayton LA. Visitor effects on the behavior of captive Western lowland gorillas: the importance of individual differences in examining welfare. Zoo Biol 2011; 31:586-99. [PMID: 22038867 DOI: 10.1002/zoo.20425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2011] [Revised: 09/09/2011] [Accepted: 09/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Given the conflicting and somewhat limited findings available on the effect of zoo visitors on primate behavior, the primary purpose of this study was to provide additional data on gorillas' response to variations in crowd size and to look at what other factors-both intrinsic (e.g. personality, sex, and rearing history) and extrinsic (e.g. group)-might influence such responses. Subjects included four groups (three mixed-sex and one bachelor) of captive western lowland gorillas living at Zoo Atlanta. Overall activity budgets and rates of social behaviors in high and low crowd conditions were compared. Behaviors suggestive of general welfare did not vary as a function of crowd size alone, although we did observe one significant interaction and several trends. Specifically, two groups spent more time engaged in undesirable behaviors in the high crowd condition, whereas the other two groups showed the opposite response pattern. Additionally, males, but not females, showed a trend toward greater rates of contact aggression in the high crowd condition, although wounding rates did not vary with crowd size. We also found trends towards variation in response to crowd size as a function of individual personality ratings. These results suggest that although the visitor effect may constitute an impediment to optimal animal welfare, this may only apply to some individuals or groups. We emphasize the importance of continuing to explore individual differences and the limitations of a one-size-fits-all approach when describing influences on animal welfare.
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Fecal Glucocorticoid Measurements and Their Relation to Rearing, Behavior, and Environmental Factors in the Population of Pileated Gibbons (Hylobates pileatus) Held in European Zoos. INT J PRIMATOL 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-011-9532-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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59
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Rajagopal T, Archunan G, Sekar M. Impact of Zoo Visitors on the Fecal Cortisol Levels and Behavior of an Endangered Species: Indian Blackbuck (Antelope cervicapra L.). J APPL ANIM WELF SCI 2011; 14:18-32. [DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2011.527598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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60
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Smith KN, Kuhar CW. Siamangs (Hylobates syndactylus) and white-cheeked gibbons (Hylobates leucogenys) show few behavioral differences related to zoo attendance. J APPL ANIM WELF SCI 2010; 13:154-63. [PMID: 20349380 DOI: 10.1080/10888700903579895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The effect of visitors on behavior and welfare of nonhuman animals in the zoo has been an active research topic during the last few decades. Although research has variously shown negative or positive impacts of zoo visitors on animals in captivity, previous primate research at Disney's Animal Kingdom suggests the importance of visual barriers in allowing animals to cope with large crowds. Examining this further, this study monitored the behavior of white-cheeked gibbons (Hylobates leucogenys) and siamangs (Hylobates syndactylus) in large, open exhibits. Behavioral data showed rates of social behavior and percentage of time engaged in solitary behavior did not differ between low and high visitor-attendance days. Both gibbons and siamangs spent more time in areas away from the public on high attendance days. Supporting previous findings, results imply visual barriers and ability to retreat from crowds may have provided these animals with choice and minimized potential negative visitor impact. Future research should focus on the relationship between attendance and actual crowds at exhibits; it should utilize multi-institutional methodologies to control for variance and look for individual and demographic differences between individuals.
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Aguilar-Cucurachi MS, Dias PA, Rangel-Negrín A, Chavira R, Boeck L, Canales-Espinosa D. Preliminary evidence of accumulation of stress during translocation in mantled howlers. Am J Primatol 2010; 72:805-10. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.20841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Abstract
The assessment of animal welfare relates to investigations of how animals try to cope with their environment, and how easy or how difficult it is for them to do so. The use of rigorous scientific methods to assess this has grown over the past few decades, and so our understanding of the needs of animals has improved during this time. Much of the work in the field of animal welfare has been conducted on farm animals, but it is important to consider how the methods and approaches used in assessing farm animal welfare have been, and can be, adapted and applied to the measurement of welfare in animals in other domains, such as in zoos. This is beneficial to our understanding of both the theoretical knowledge, and the practicability of methods. In this article, some of the commonly-used methods for measuring animal welfare will be discussed, as well as some practical considerations in assessing the welfare of zoo animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonya P Hill
- North of England Zoological Society (Chester Zoo), Chester CH2 1LH, United Kingdom.
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63
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The effects of visitor density on sika deer (Cervus nippon) behaviour in Zhu-Yu-Wan Park, China. Anim Welf 2010. [DOI: 10.1017/s0962728600001172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
AbstractVisitors to zoos are a source of potential stress to certain captive-housed animals. Much research has focused on Europe and America, whereas the effect of human audiences on the behaviour of captive animals in Chinese parks has so far not been investigated. Sika deer (Cervus nippon) housed in Zhu-Yu-Wan Park, Yangzhou City, Jiangsu Province, China, were studied to determine the effect of different visitor density levels on the animals’ activity. From June 21 to December 10, 2006, and again from February 21 to July 10, 2007, 21 subjects were observed for 10 h per week for a total of 44 weeks. Continuous focal animal sampling was used to quantify behaviours, and visitor density was recorded every minute. Friedman's tests were used to examine the effects of visitor density on the behaviour of sika deer. Results showed that high visitor density was significantly related to foraging, resting, watching and ‘non-visible’ behaviours. The findings demonstrate that high numbers of visitors have an effect on the welfare of sika deer.
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64
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Rangel-Negrín A, Alfaro JL, Valdez RA, Romano MC, Serio-Silva JC. Stress in Yucatan spider monkeys: effects of environmental conditions on fecal cortisol levels in wild and captive populations. Anim Conserv 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00280.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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65
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66
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Sekar M, Rajagopal T, Archunan G. Influence of zoo visitor presence on the behavior of captive Indian gaur (Bos gaurus gaurus) in a zoological park. J APPL ANIM WELF SCI 2009; 11:352-7. [PMID: 18821404 DOI: 10.1080/10888700802330093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Visitors to zoos can be a source of potential disturbance and stress to some captive, nonhuman animals in the wild. To determine the influence of visitor presence on captive bison (Bos gaurus gaurus), the study analyzed the behavior of 4 individuals at the Arignar Anna Zoological Park, India. The study often observed the behavior of the animals on visitor-present days and on days when visitors were absent. In the presence of zoo visitors, the bison showed a higher level of intragroup aggression and moving behavior. In contrast, the bison rested more when no visitors were present. The results revealed that the presence of zoo visitors significantly influenced the behavior of captive bison and thereby may have affected their welfare.
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67
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Carder G, Semple S. Visitor effects on anxiety in two captive groups of western lowland gorillas. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2008.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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68
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69
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Wagner KE, Ross SR. Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) birth patterns and human presence in zoological settings. Am J Primatol 2008; 70:703-6. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.20545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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70
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Todd PA, Macdonald C, Coleman D. Visitor-associated variation in captive Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana diana) behaviour. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2006.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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71
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Abstract
Since the 1970s, research about zoo visitors' effects on the welfare of nonhuman animals in captivity has intensified. Numerous studies have shown that characteristics such as visitor presence, density, activity, size, and position are associated with animal behavioral and--to a lesser extent physiological--changes. Studies usually interpret these changes as negative (undesirable) or positive (enriching), but it remains unclear whether they significantly impinge on animal welfare. To make confident conclusions about visitors' effects necessitates more studies using (a) a wider range of animal groupings, (b) measures of stress, (c) visitor-animal variables, and (d) other methodological improvements In the meantime, in addition to further research, individual zoos need to emphasize (a) monitoring the stress indicators of their captive animals, (b) observing visitor behavior, and (c) ensuring that staffs are aware of the "visitor effect" concept.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth Davey
- Department of Psychology, University of Chester, Chester, UK.
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72
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Cooke CM, Schillaci MA. Behavioral responses to the zoo environment by white handed gibbons. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2006.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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73
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74
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75
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Wells D. Response to Ross, Lonsdorf and Stoinski: Assessing the welfare implications of visitors in a zoo setting—A comment on Wells (2005). Appl Anim Behav Sci 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2006.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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76
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Ross SR, Lonsdorf EV, Stoinski T. Assessing the welfare implications of visitors in a zoo setting: A comment on Wells (2005). Appl Anim Behav Sci 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2006.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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77
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78
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Wells DL. A note on the influence of visitors on the behaviour and welfare of zoo-housed gorillas. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2005.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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