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Huang Y, Rodriguez-Granados NY, Latrasse D, Raynaud C, Benhamed M, Ramirez-Prado JS. The matrix revolutions: towards the decoding of the plant chromatin three-dimensional reality. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2020; 71:5129-5147. [PMID: 32639553 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eraa322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, we have witnessed a significant increase in studies addressing the three-dimensional (3D) chromatin organization of the plant nucleus. Important advances in chromatin conformation capture (3C)-derived and related techniques have allowed the exploration of the nuclear topology of plants with large and complex genomes, including various crops. In addition, the increase in their resolution has permitted the depiction of chromatin compartmentalization and interactions at the gene scale. These studies have revealed the highly complex mechanisms governing plant nuclear architecture and the remarkable knowledge gaps in this field. Here we discuss the state-of-the-art in plant chromosome architecture, including our knowledge of the hierarchical organization of the genome in 3D space and regarding other nuclear components. Furthermore, we highlight the existence in plants of topologically associated domain (TAD)-like structures that display striking differences from their mammalian counterparts, proposing the concept of ICONS-intergenic condensed spacers. Similarly, we explore recent advances in the study of chromatin loops and R-loops, and their implication in the regulation of gene activity. Finally, we address the impact that polyploidization has had on the chromatin topology of modern crops, and how this is related to phenomena such as subgenome dominance and biased gene retention in these organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Huang
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris of Saclay (IPS2), UMR 9213/UMR1403, CNRS, INRA, Université Paris-Sud, Université d'Evry, Université Paris-Diderot, Orsay, France
| | - Natalia Yaneth Rodriguez-Granados
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris of Saclay (IPS2), UMR 9213/UMR1403, CNRS, INRA, Université Paris-Sud, Université d'Evry, Université Paris-Diderot, Orsay, France
| | - David Latrasse
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris of Saclay (IPS2), UMR 9213/UMR1403, CNRS, INRA, Université Paris-Sud, Université d'Evry, Université Paris-Diderot, Orsay, France
| | - Cecile Raynaud
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris of Saclay (IPS2), UMR 9213/UMR1403, CNRS, INRA, Université Paris-Sud, Université d'Evry, Université Paris-Diderot, Orsay, France
| | - Moussa Benhamed
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris of Saclay (IPS2), UMR 9213/UMR1403, CNRS, INRA, Université Paris-Sud, Université d'Evry, Université Paris-Diderot, Orsay, France
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), France
| | - Juan Sebastian Ramirez-Prado
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris of Saclay (IPS2), UMR 9213/UMR1403, CNRS, INRA, Université Paris-Sud, Université d'Evry, Université Paris-Diderot, Orsay, France
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Singh PB, Belyakin SN, Laktionov PP. Biology and Physics of Heterochromatin- Like Domains/Complexes. Cells 2020; 9:E1881. [PMID: 32796726 PMCID: PMC7465696 DOI: 10.3390/cells9081881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The hallmarks of constitutive heterochromatin, HP1 and H3K9me2/3, assemble heterochromatin-like domains/complexes outside canonical constitutively heterochromatic territories where they regulate chromatin template-dependent processes. Domains are more than 100 kb in size; complexes less than 100 kb. They are present in the genomes of organisms ranging from fission yeast to human, with an expansion in size and number in mammals. Some of the likely functions of domains/complexes include silencing of the donor mating type region in fission yeast, preservation of DNA methylation at imprinted germline differentially methylated regions (gDMRs) and regulation of the phylotypic progression during vertebrate development. Far cis- and trans-contacts between micro-phase separated domains/complexes in mammalian nuclei contribute to the emergence of epigenetic compartmental domains (ECDs) detected in Hi-C maps. A thermodynamic description of micro-phase separation of heterochromatin-like domains/complexes may require a gestalt shift away from the monomer as the "unit of incompatibility" that determines the sign and magnitude of the Flory-Huggins parameter, χ. Instead, a more dynamic structure, the oligo-nucleosomal "clutch", consisting of between 2 and 10 nucleosomes is both the long sought-after secondary structure of chromatin and its unit of incompatibility. Based on this assumption we present a simple theoretical framework that enables an estimation of χ for domains/complexes flanked by euchromatin and thereby an indication of their tendency to phase separate. The degree of phase separation is specified by χN, where N is the number of "clutches" in a domain/complex. Our approach could provide an additional tool for understanding the biophysics of the 3D genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prim B. Singh
- Nazarbayev University School of Medicine, Nur-Sultan City 010000, Kazakhstan
- Epigenetics Laboratory, Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, 2 Pirogova St., 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Stepan N. Belyakin
- Epigenetics Laboratory, Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, 2 Pirogova St., 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
- Genomics laboratory, Institute of molecular and cellular biology SD RAS, Lavrentyev ave, 8/2, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (S.N.B.); (P.P.L.)
| | - Petr P. Laktionov
- Epigenetics Laboratory, Department of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, 2 Pirogova St., 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
- Genomics laboratory, Institute of molecular and cellular biology SD RAS, Lavrentyev ave, 8/2, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (S.N.B.); (P.P.L.)
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53
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Farooqi AA, Fayyaz S, Poltronieri P, Calin G, Mallardo M. Epigenetic deregulation in cancer: Enzyme players and non-coding RNAs. Semin Cancer Biol 2020; 83:197-207. [PMID: 32738290 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2020.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 07/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Data obtained from cutting-edge research have shown that deregulated epigenetic marks are critical hallmarks of cancer. Rapidly emerging scientific evidence has helped in developing a proper understanding of the mechanisms leading to control of cellular functions, from changes in chromatin accessibility, transcription and translation, and in post-translational modifications. Firstly, mechanisms of DNA methylation and demethylation are introduced, as well as modifications of DNA and RNA, with particular focus on N6-methyladenosine (m6A), discussing the effects of these modifications in normal cells and in malignancies. Then, chromatin modifying proteins and remodelling complexes are discussed. Many enzymes and accessory proteins in these complexes have been found mutated or have undergone differential splicing, leading to defective protein complexes. Epigenetic mechanisms acting on nucleosomes by polycomb repressive complexes and on chromatin by SWI/SNF complexes on nucleosome assembly/disassembly, as well as main mutated genes linked to cancers, are reviewed. Among enzymes acting on histones and other proteins erasing the reversible modifications are histone deacetylases (HDACs). Sirtuins are of interest since most of these enzymes not only deacylate histones and other proteins, but also post-translationally modify proteins adding a Mono-ADP-ribose (MAR) moiety. MAR can be read by MACRO-domain containing proteins such as histone MacroH2A1, with specific function in chromatin assembly. Finally, recent advances are presented on non-coding RNAs with a scaffold function, prospecting their role in assembly of chromatin modifying complexes, recruiting enzyme players to chromatin regions. Lastly, the imbalance in metabolites production due to mitochondrial dysfunction is presented, with the potential of these metabolites to inhibit enzymes, either writers, readers or erasers of epitranscriptome marks. In the perspectives, studies are overwied on drugs under development aiming to limit excessive enzyme activities and to reactivate chromatin modifying complexes, for therapeutic application. This knowledge may lead to novel drugs and personalised medicine for cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ammad Ahmad Farooqi
- Department of Molecular Oncology, Institute of Biomedical and Genetic Engineering (IBGE), Islamabad 44000, Pakistan.
| | | | - Palmiro Poltronieri
- Institute of Sciences of Food Productions, National Research Council of Italy, via Monteroni Km 7, 73100 Lecce, Italy.
| | - George Calin
- Department of Experimental Therapeutics, and Center for RNA Interference and Non-Coding RNAs, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA.
| | - Massimo Mallardo
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, University of Naples, "Federico II" via Pansini 5, Napoli, Italy.
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Shanak S, Helms V. DNA methylation and the core pluripotency network. Dev Biol 2020; 464:145-160. [PMID: 32562758 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2020.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Revised: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
From the onset of fertilization, the genome undergoes cell division and differentiation. All of these developmental transitions and differentiation processes include cell-specific signatures and gradual changes of the epigenome. Understanding what keeps stem cells in the pluripotent state and what leads to differentiation are fascinating and biomedically highly important issues. Numerous studies have identified genes, proteins, microRNAs and small molecules that exert essential effects. Notably, there exists a core pluripotency network that consists of several transcription factors and accessory proteins. Three eminent transcription factors, OCT4, SOX2 and NANOG, serve as hubs in this core pluripotency network. They bind to the enhancer regions of their target genes and modulate, among others, the expression levels of genes that are associated with Gene Ontology terms related to differentiation and self-renewal. Also, much has been learned about the epigenetic rewiring processes during these changes of cell fate. For example, DNA methylation dynamics is pivotal during embryonic development. The main goal of this review is to highlight an intricate interplay of (a) DNA methyltransferases controlling the expression levels of core pluripotency factors by modulation of the DNA methylation levels in their enhancer regions, and of (b) the core pluripotency factors controlling the transcriptional regulation of DNA methyltransferases. We discuss these processes both at the global level and in atomistic detail based on information from structural studies and from computer simulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siba Shanak
- Faculty of Science, Arab-American University, Jenin, Palestine; Center for Bioinformatics, Saarland University, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Volkhard Helms
- Center for Bioinformatics, Saarland University, Saarbruecken, Germany.
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Boyle S, Flyamer IM, Williamson I, Sengupta D, Bickmore WA, Illingworth RS. A central role for canonical PRC1 in shaping the 3D nuclear landscape. Genes Dev 2020; 34:931-949. [PMID: 32439634 PMCID: PMC7328521 DOI: 10.1101/gad.336487.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
In this study from Boyle et al., the authors investigated the role of Polycomb-repressive complex 1 (PRC1) in shaping 3D genome organization in mouse embryonic stem cells. Using a combination of imaging and Hi-C analyses they show that PRC1-mediated long-range interactions are independent of CTCF and can bridge sites at a megabase scale, thus providing novel insights into the function of PRC1. Polycomb group (PcG) proteins silence gene expression by chemically and physically modifying chromatin. A subset of PcG target loci are compacted and cluster in the nucleus; a conformation that is thought to contribute to gene silencing. However, how these interactions influence gross nuclear organization and their relationship with transcription remains poorly understood. Here we examine the role of Polycomb-repressive complex 1 (PRC1) in shaping 3D genome organization in mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs). Using a combination of imaging and Hi-C analyses, we show that PRC1-mediated long-range interactions are independent of CTCF and can bridge sites at a megabase scale. Impairment of PRC1 enzymatic activity does not directly disrupt these interactions. We demonstrate that PcG targets coalesce in vivo, and that developmentally induced expression of one of the target loci disrupts this spatial arrangement. Finally, we show that transcriptional activation and the loss of PRC1-mediated interactions are separable events. These findings provide important insights into the function of PRC1, while highlighting the complexity of this regulatory system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelagh Boyle
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, United Kingdom
| | - Ilya M Flyamer
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, United Kingdom
| | - Iain Williamson
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, United Kingdom
| | - Dipta Sengupta
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, United Kingdom
| | - Wendy A Bickmore
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, United Kingdom
| | - Robert S Illingworth
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH4 2XU, United Kingdom
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Flyamer IM, Illingworth RS, Bickmore WA. Coolpup.py: versatile pile-up analysis of Hi-C data. Bioinformatics 2020; 36:2980-2985. [PMID: 32003791 PMCID: PMC7214034 DOI: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btaa073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Revised: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
MOTIVATION Hi-C is currently the method of choice to investigate the global 3D organization of the genome. A major limitation of Hi-C is the sequencing depth required to robustly detect loops in the data. A popular approach used to mitigate this issue, even in single-cell Hi-C data, is genome-wide averaging (piling-up) of peaks, or other features, annotated in high-resolution datasets, to measure their prominence in less deeply sequenced data. However, current tools do not provide a computationally efficient and versatile implementation of this approach. RESULTS Here, we describe coolpup.py-a versatile tool to perform pile-up analysis on Hi-C data. We demonstrate its utility by replicating previously published findings regarding the role of cohesin and CTCF in 3D genome organization, as well as discovering novel details of Polycomb-driven interactions. We also present a novel variation of the pile-up approach that can aid the statistical analysis of looping interactions. We anticipate that coolpup.py will aid in Hi-C data analysis by allowing easy to use, versatile and efficient generation of pile-ups. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION Coolpup.py is cross-platform, open-source and free (MIT licensed) software. Source code is available from https://github.com/Phlya/coolpuppy and it can be installed from the Python Packaging Index.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilya M Flyamer
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH4 2XU, UK
| | - Robert S Illingworth
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, UK
| | - Wendy A Bickmore
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH4 2XU, UK
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57
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Samudyata, Castelo-Branco G, Liu J. Epigenetic regulation of oligodendrocyte differentiation: From development to demyelinating disorders. Glia 2020; 68:1619-1630. [PMID: 32154951 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Revised: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The maintenance of progenitor states or the differentiation of progenitors into specific lineages requires epigenetic remodeling of the gene expression program. In the central nervous system, oligodendrocyte progenitors (OPCs) give rise to oligodendrocytes (OLs), whose main function has been thought to be to produce myelin, a lipid-rich structure insulating the axons. However, recent findings suggest diverse OL transcriptional states, which might imply additional functions. The differentiation of OPCs into postmitotic OLs is a highly regulated and sensitive process and requires temporal waves of gene expression through epigenetic remodeling of the genome. In this review, we will discuss recent advances in understanding the events shaping the chromatin landscape through histone modifications and long noncoding RNAs during OPC differentiation, in physiological and pathological conditions. We suggest that epigenetic regulation plays a fundamental role in governing the accessibility of transcriptional machinery to DNA sequences, which ultimately determines functional outcomes in OLs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samudyata
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Gonçalo Castelo-Branco
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Ming Wai Lau Centre for Reparative Medicine, Stockholm node, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jia Liu
- Advanced Science Research Center at the Graduate Center, Neuroscience Initiative, City University of New York, New York, New York, USA
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58
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Dunican DS, Mjoseng HK, Duthie L, Flyamer IM, Bickmore WA, Meehan RR. Bivalent promoter hypermethylation in cancer is linked to the H327me3/H3K4me3 ratio in embryonic stem cells. BMC Biol 2020; 18:25. [PMID: 32131813 PMCID: PMC7057567 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-020-0752-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thousands of mammalian promoters are defined by co-enrichment of the histone tail modifications H3K27me3 (repressive) and H3K4me3 (activating) and are thus termed bivalent. It was previously observed that bivalent genes in human ES cells (hESC) are frequent targets for hypermethylation in human cancers, and depletion of DNA methylation in mouse embryonic stem cells has a marked impact on H3K27me3 distribution at bivalent promoters. However, only a fraction of bivalent genes in stem cells are targets of hypermethylation in cancer, and it is currently unclear whether all bivalent promoters are equally sensitive to DNA hypomethylation and whether H3K4me3 levels play a role in the interplay between DNA methylation and H3K27me3. RESULTS We report the sub-classification of bivalent promoters into two groups-promoters with a high H3K27me3:H3K4me3 (hiBiv) ratio or promoters with a low H3K27me3:H3K4me3 ratio (loBiv). HiBiv are enriched in canonical Polycomb components, show a higher degree of local intrachromosomal contacts and are highly sensitive to DNA hypomethylation in terms of H3K27me3 depletion from broad Polycomb domains. In contrast, loBiv promoters are enriched in non-canonical Polycomb components, show lower intrachromosomal contacts and are less sensitive to DNA hypomethylation at the same genomic resolution. Multiple systems reveal that hiBiv promoters are more depleted of Polycomb complexes than loBiv promoters following a reduction in DNA methylation, and we demonstrate that H3K27me3 re-accumulates at promoters when DNA methylation is restored. In human cancer, we show that hiBiv promoters lose H3K27me3 and are more susceptible to DNA hypermethylation than loBiv promoters. CONCLUSION We conclude that bivalency as a general term to describe mammalian promoters is an over-simplification and our sub-classification has revealed novel insights into the interplay between the largely antagonistic presence of DNA methylation and Polycomb systems at bivalent promoters. This approach redefines molecular pathologies underlying disease in which global DNA methylation is aberrant or where Polycomb mutations are present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donnchadh S. Dunican
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, MRC IGMM, University of Edinburgh, Western General Hospital, Crewe Road, Edinburgh, EH4 2XU Scotland
| | - Heidi K. Mjoseng
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, MRC IGMM, University of Edinburgh, Western General Hospital, Crewe Road, Edinburgh, EH4 2XU Scotland
| | - Leanne Duthie
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, MRC IGMM, University of Edinburgh, Western General Hospital, Crewe Road, Edinburgh, EH4 2XU Scotland
| | - Ilya M. Flyamer
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, MRC IGMM, University of Edinburgh, Western General Hospital, Crewe Road, Edinburgh, EH4 2XU Scotland
| | - Wendy A. Bickmore
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, MRC IGMM, University of Edinburgh, Western General Hospital, Crewe Road, Edinburgh, EH4 2XU Scotland
| | - Richard R. Meehan
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, MRC IGMM, University of Edinburgh, Western General Hospital, Crewe Road, Edinburgh, EH4 2XU Scotland
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Kumar B, Elsässer SJ. Quantitative Multiplexed ChIP Reveals Global Alterations that Shape Promoter Bivalency in Ground State Embryonic Stem Cells. Cell Rep 2019; 28:3274-3284.e5. [PMID: 31533047 PMCID: PMC6859498 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.08.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Revised: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
To understand the epigenomic foundation of naive pluripotency, we implement a quantitative multiplexed chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) method comparing mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs) grown in 2i versus 2i/serum and serum conditions. MINUTE-ChIP has a large linear dynamic range for accurately quantifying relative differences in genome-wide histone modification patterns across multiple pooled samples. We find compelling evidence for a broad H3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3) hypermethylation of the genome, while bivalent promoters stably retain high H3K27me3 levels in 2i. We show that DNA hypomethylation, as observed in 2i, is a contributor to genome-wide gain of H3K27me3, while active demethylation by JMJD3/UTX counteracts further accumulation of H3K27me3. In parallel, we find hypomethylation of H3 lysine 4 trimethylation (H3K4me3), particularly at bivalent promoters, to be a characteristic of the 2i ground state. Serum stimulates H3K4me3 independent of GSK-3b and ERK signaling, suggesting that low H3K4me3 and high H3K27me3 levels at bivalent promoters are a product of two independent mechanisms that safeguard naive pluripotency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Banushree Kumar
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, 17165 Stockholm, Sweden; Ming Wai Lau Centre for Reparative Medicine, Stockholm Node, Karolinska Institutet, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Simon J Elsässer
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, 17165 Stockholm, Sweden; Ming Wai Lau Centre for Reparative Medicine, Stockholm Node, Karolinska Institutet, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden.
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