Sustained elongation of sperm tail promoted by local remodeling of giant mitochondria in Drosophila

Spermitin: a novel mitochondrial protein in Drosophila spermatids

Mitochondria, important energy centers in the cell, also control sperm cell morphogenesis. Drosophila spermatids have a remarkably large mitochondrial formation called the nebenkern. Immediately following meiosis during sperm development, the mitochondria in the spermatid fuse together into two large aggregates which then wrap around one another to produce the spherical nebenkern: a giant mitochondrion about 6 micrometers in diameter. The fused mitochondria play an important role in sperm tail elongation by providing a structural platform to support the elongation of sperm cells. We have identified a novel testis-specific protein, Spermitin (Sprn), a protein with a Pleckstrin homology-like (PH) domain related to Ran-binding protein 1 at its C-terminus. Fluorescence microscopy showed that Sprn localizes at mitochondria in transfected Kc167 cells, and in the nebenkern throughout spermatid morphogenesis. The role of Sprn is unclear, as sprn mutant males are fertile, and have sperm tail length comparable to the wild-type.

A proteomic screen with Drosophila Opa1-like identifies Hsc70-5/Mortalin as a regulator of mitochondrial morphology and cellular homeostasis

Mitochondrial morphology is regulated by conserved proteins involved in fusion and fission processes. The mammalian Optic atrophy 1 (OPA1) that functions in mitochondrial fusion is associated with Optic Atrophy and has been implicated in inner membrane cristae remodeling during cell death. Here, we show Drosophila Optic atrophy 1-like (Opa1-like) influences mitochondrial morphology through interaction with 'mitochondria-shaping' proteins like Mitochondrial assembly regulatory factor (Marf) and Drosophila Mitofilin (dMitofilin). To gain an insight into Opa1-like's network, we delineated bonafide interactors like dMitofilin, Marf, Serine protease High temperature requirement protein A2 (HTRA2), Rhomboid-7 (Rho-7) along with novel interactors such as Mortalin ortholog (Hsc70-5) from Drosophila mitochondrial extract. Interestingly, RNAi mediated down-regulation of hsc70-5 in Drosophila wing imaginal disc's peripodial cells resulted in fragmented mitochondria with reduced membrane potential leading to proteolysis of Opa1-like. Increased ecdysone activity induced dysfunctional fragmented mitochondria for clearance through lysosomes, an effect enhanced in hsc70-5 RNAi leading to increased cell death. Over-expression of Opa1-like rescues mitochondrial morphology and cell death in prepupal tissues expressing hsc70-5 RNAi. Taken together, we have identified a novel interaction between Hsc70-5/Mortalin and Opa1-like that influences cellular homeostasis through mitochondrial fusion.

Msp1/ATAD1 maintains mitochondrial function by facilitating the degradation of mislocalized tail-anchored proteins

The majority of ER-targeted tail-anchored (TA) proteins are inserted into membranes by the Guided Entry of Tail-anchored protein (GET) system. Disruption of this system causes a subset of TA proteins to mislocalize to mitochondria. We show that the AAA+ ATPase Msp1 limits the accumulation of mislocalized TA proteins on mitochondria. Deletion of MSP1 causes the Pex15 and Gos1 TA proteins to accumulate on mitochondria when the GET system is impaired. Likely as a result of failing to extract mislocalized TA proteins, yeast with combined mutation of the MSP1 gene and the GET system exhibit strong synergistic growth defects and severe mitochondrial damage, including loss of mitochondrial DNA and protein and aberrant mitochondrial morphology. Like yeast Msp1, human ATAD1 limits the mitochondrial mislocalization of PEX26 and GOS28, orthologs of Pex15 and Gos1, respectively. GOS28 protein level is also increased in ATAD1(-/-) mouse tissues. Therefore, we propose that yeast Msp1 and mammalian ATAD1 are conserved members of the mitochondrial protein quality control system that might promote the extraction and degradation of mislocalized TA proteins to maintain mitochondrial integrity.

Mitochondrial DNA content of mature spermatozoa and oocytes in the genetic model Drosophila

Although crucial to the success of fertilization and embryogenesis, little is known about the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) content of mature spermatozoa and oocytes across taxa and across different fertilization systems. Oocytes are assumed to hold a large population of mtDNAs that populate emerging cells during early embryogenesis, whereas spermatozoa harbor only a limited pool of mtDNAs that is believed to sustain functionality but fails to contribute paternal mtDNA to the zygote. Recent work suggests that mature sperm of the genetic model Drosophila melanogaster lack mtDNA, questioning the significance of zygotic mechanisms for the selective elimination of paternal mtDNA and their necessity for fertilization success. This finding further contradicts previous observations of the inheritance of paternal mtDNA in drosophilids. Using quantitative polymerase chain reaction, we estimate the mtDNA content of several laboratory strains of D. melanogaster and D. simulans to shed light on this discrepancy and to describe the mitochondrial/mtDNA load of gametes within this system. These measurements led to an average estimate of 22.91±4.61 mtDNA molecules/copies per spermatozoon across both species and to 1.07E+07±2.71E+06 molecules/copies per oocyte for D. simulans. As a consequence, the ratio of paternal and maternal mtDNA in the zygote was estimated at 1:4.65E+05.

Natural variation of the Y chromosome suppresses sex ratio distortion and modulates testis-specific gene expression in Drosophila simulans

X-linked sex-ratio distorters that disrupt spermatogenesis can cause a deficiency in functional Y-bearing sperm and a female-biased sex ratio. Y-linked modifiers that restore a normal sex ratio might be abundant and favored when a X-linked distorter is present. Here we investigated natural variation of Y-linked suppressors of sex-ratio in the Winters systems and the ability of these chromosomes to modulate gene expression in Drosophila simulans. Seventy-eight Y chromosomes of worldwide origin were assayed for their resistance to the X-linked sex-ratio distorter gene Dox. Y chromosome diversity caused males to sire ∼63% to ∼98% female progeny. Genome-wide gene expression analysis revealed hundreds of genes differentially expressed between isogenic males with sensitive (high sex ratio) and resistant (low sex ratio) Y chromosomes from the same population. Although the expression of about 75% of all testis-specific genes remained unchanged across Y chromosomes, a subset of post-meiotic genes was upregulated by resistant Y chromosomes. Conversely, a set of accessory gland-specific genes and mitochondrial genes were downregulated in males with resistant Y chromosomes. The D. simulans Y chromosome also modulated gene expression in XXY females in which the Y-linked protein-coding genes are not transcribed. The data suggest that the Y chromosome might exert its regulatory functions through epigenetic mechanisms that do not require the expression of protein-coding genes. The gene network that modulates sex ratio distortion by the Y chromosome is poorly understood, other than that it might include interactions with mitochondria and enriched for genes expressed in post-meiotic stages of spermatogenesis.

Drosophila male-sterile mutation emmenthal specifically affects the mitochondrial morphogenesis

Proper mitochondrial morphogenesis is crucial for successful development of motile sperm. It was known that recessive Drosophila melanogaster mutation emm caused anomalies in the formation of a mitochondrial derivative--nebenkern and led to male sterility. Here we identified primary mutation effect and showed that emm is required for the formation and maintenance of inner mitochondrial structure starting from early spermatocytes. Abnormal mitochondria structure affects subsequent cellular processes in spermatogenesis such as meiotic cytokinesis and spermatid elongation.

Citron kinase mediates transition from constriction to abscission through its coiled-coil domain

Cytokinesis is initiated by constriction of the cleavage furrow, and completed with separation of the two daughter cells by abscission. Control of transition from constriction to abscission is therefore crucial for cytokinesis. However, the underlying mechanism is largely unknown. Here, we analyze the role of Citron kinase (Citron-K) that localizes at the cleavage furrow and the midbody, and dissect its action mechanisms during this transition. Citron-K forms a stable ring-like structure at the midbody and its depletion affects the maintenance of the intercellular bridge, resulting in fusion of two daughter cells after the cleavage furrow ingression. RNA interference (RNAi) targeting Citron-K reduced accumulation of RhoA, Anillin, and septins at the intercellular bridge in mid telophase, and impaired concentration and maintenance of KIF14 and PRC1 at the midbody in late telophase. RNAi rescue experiments revealed that these functions of Citron-K are mediated by its coiled-coil (CC) domain, and not by its kinase domain. The C-terminal part of CC contains a Rho-binding domain and a cluster-forming region and is important for concentrating Citron-K from the cleavage furrow to the midbody. The N-terminal part of CC directly binds to KIF14, and this interaction is required for timely transfer of Citron-K to the midbody after furrow ingression. We propose that the CC-domain-mediated translocation and actions of Citron-K ensure proper stabilization of the midbody structure during the transition from constriction to abscission.

String mitochondria in mouse soleus muscle

Red myofibers in mouse soleus muscle have two spatially distinct populations of mitochondria: one where these organelles are disposed in large clusters just inside the sarcolemma and the other situated between the myofibrils. In most cases, the interfibrillar mitochondria (IFM), which are much smaller than the subsarcolemmal ones (SSM), are arranged as pairs, with each member on opposite sides of the Z-line. In some myofibers, the IFM have fused end-to-end to form greatly elongated organelles, which we call "string mitochondria." Although narrow, these can be many sarcomeres in length. The SSM do not form string mitochondria. Most of the string mitochondria exhibit many instances of "pinching," a process involved in mitochondrial division. Elements of sarcoplasmic reticulum are intimately involved with each mitochondrial membrane invagination. It appears as if the fusion:fission balance of IFM in the soleus muscle is slightly out of kilter, with end-to-end fusion predominating over fission.

D. melanogaster, mitochondria and neurodegeneration: small model organism, big discoveries

In developed countries, increased life expectancy is accompanied by an increased prevalence of age-related disorders like cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. Albeit the molecular mechanisms behind the clinically, pathologically and etiologically heterogeneous forms of neurodegeneration are often unclear, impairment of mitochondrial fusion-fission and dynamics emerged in recent years as a feature of neuronal dysfunction and death, pinpointing the need for animal models to investigate the relationship between mitochondrial shape and neurodegeneration. While research on mammalian models is slowed down by the complexity of the organisms and their genomes, the long latency of the symptoms and by the difficulty to generate and analyze large cohorts, the lower metazoan Drosophila melanogaster overcomes these problems, proving to be a suitable model to study neurodegenerative diseases and mitochondria-shaping proteins. Here we will summarize our current knowledge on the link between mitochondrial shape and models of neurodegeneration in the fruitfly. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Mitochondrial function and dysfunction in neurodegeneration'.

Drosophila spermiogenesis: Big things come from little packages

Drosophila melanogaster spermatids undergo dramatic morphological changes as they differentiate from small round cells approximately 12 μm in diameter into highly polarized, 1.8 mm long, motile sperm capable of participating in fertilization. During spermiogenesis, syncytial cysts of 64 haploid spermatids undergo synchronous differentiation. Numerous changes occur at a subcellular level, including remodeling of existing organelles (mitochondria, nuclei), formation of new organelles (flagellar axonemes, acrosomes), polarization of elongating cysts and plasma membrane addition. At the end of spermatid morphogenesis, organelles, mitochondrial DNA and cytoplasmic components not needed in mature sperm are stripped away in a caspase-dependent process called individualization that results in formation of individual sperm. Here, we review the stages of Drosophila spermiogenesis and examine our current understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in shaping male germ cell-specific organelles and forming mature, fertile sperm.

Drosophila chibby is required for basal body formation and ciliogenesis but not for Wg signaling

In contrast to vertebrate CBY, which functions in WNT signaling, Drosophila CBY is essential for normal basal body structure and function but dispensable for Wg signaling.

Centriole-to–basal body conversion, a complex process essential for ciliogenesis, involves the progressive addition of specific proteins to centrioles. CHIBBY (CBY) is a coiled-coil domain protein first described as interacting with β-catenin and involved in Wg-Int (WNT) signaling. We found that, in Drosophila melanogaster, CBY was exclusively expressed in cells that require functional basal bodies, i.e., sensory neurons and male germ cells. CBY was associated with the basal body transition zone (TZ) in these two cell types. Inactivation of cby led to defects in sensory transduction and in spermatogenesis. Loss of CBY resulted in altered ciliary trafficking into neuronal cilia, irregular deposition of proteins on spermatocyte basal bodies, and, consequently, distorted axonemal assembly. Importantly, cby^1/1 flies did not show Wingless signaling defects. Hence, CBY is essential for normal basal body structure and function in Drosophila, potentially through effects on the TZ. The function of CBY in WNT signaling in vertebrates has either been acquired during vertebrate evolution or lost in Drosophila.

Type-I prenyl protease function is required in the male germline of Drosophila melanogaster

Many proteins require the addition of a hydrophobic prenyl anchor (prenylation) for proper trafficking and localization in the cell. Prenyl proteases play critical roles in modifying proteins for membrane anchorage. The type I prenyl protease has a defined function in yeast (Ste24p/Afc1p) where it modifies a mating pheromone, and in humans (Zmpste24) where it has been implicated in a disease of premature aging. Despite these apparently very different biological processes, the type I prenyl protease gene is highly conserved, encoded by a single gene in a wide range of animal and plant groups. A notable exception is Drosophila melanogaster, where the gene encoding the type I prenyl protease has undergone an unprecedented series of duplications in the genome, resulting in five distinct paralogs, three of which are organized in a tandem array, and demonstrate high conservation, particularly in the vicinity of the active site of the enzyme. We have undertaken targeted deletion to remove the three tandem paralogs from the genome. The result is a male fertility defect, manifesting late in spermatogenesis. Our results also show that the ancestral type I prenyl protease gene in Drosophila is under strong purifying selection, while the more recent replicates are evolving rapidly. Our rescue data support a role for the rapidly evolving tandem paralogs in the male germline. We propose that potential targets for the male-specific type I prenyl proteases include proteins involved in the very dramatic cytoskeletal remodeling events required for spermatid maturation.

Barriers to male transmission of mitochondrial DNA in sperm development

Across the eukaryotic phylogeny, offspring usually inherit their mitochondrial genome from only one of two parents: in animals, the female. Although mechanisms that eliminate paternally derived mitochondria from the zygote have been sought, the developmental stage at which paternal transmission of mitochondrial DNA is restricted is unknown in most animals. Here, we show that the mitochondria of mature Drosophila sperm lack DNA, and we uncover two processes that eliminate mitochondrial DNA during spermatogenesis. Visualization of mitochondrial DNA nucleoids revealed their abrupt disappearance from developing spermatids in a process requiring the mitochondrial nuclease, Endonuclease G. In Endonuclease G mutants, persisting nucleoids are swept out of spermatids by a cellular remodeling process that trims and shapes spermatid tails. Our results show that mitochondrial DNA is eliminated during spermatogenesis, thereby removing the capacity of sperm to transmit the mitochondrial genome to the next generation.

Mitochondria-driven cell elongation mechanism for competing sperms

Sexual competition has selected a number of extreme phenotypes like the tail ornament of peacock male. Sperm tail of Drosophilidae elongate up to 6 cm as a result of evolutionary selection for reproductive fitness among competing sperms. Sperm elongation takes place post meiotically and can proceed in the absence of an axoneme. Here, we used primary cultures of elongating spermatids of D. melanogaster to demonstrate that sperm elongation is driven by interdependent extension of giant mitochondria and microtubule array that is formed around the mitochondrial surface. This work established that, in addition to functioning as an energy source, mitochondria can serve as internal skeleton for shaping cell morphology.

Giant meiotic spindles in males from Drosophila species with giant sperm tails

The spindle is a highly dynamic molecular machine that mediates precise chromosome segregation during cell division. Spindle size can vary dramatically, not only between species but also between different cells of the same organism. However, the reasons for spindle size variability are largely unknown. Here we show that variations in spindle size can be linked to a precise developmental requirement. Drosophila species have dramatically different sperm flagella that range in length from 0.3 mm in D. persimilis to 58.3 mm in D. bifurca. We found that males of different species exhibit striking variations in meiotic spindle size, which positively correlate with sperm length, with D. bifurca showing 30-fold larger spindles than D. persimilis. This suggests that primary spermatocytes of Drosophila species manufacture and store amounts of tubulin that are proportional to the axoneme length and use these tubulin pools for spindle assembly. These findings highlight an unsuspected plasticity of the meiotic spindle in response to the selective forces controlling sperm length.