51
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Sonar SA, Lal G. Blood–brain barrier and its function during inflammation and autoimmunity. J Leukoc Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/jlb.1ru1117-428r order by 1-- -] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is an important physiologic barrier that separates CNS from soluble inflammatory mediators and effector immune cells from peripheral circulation. The optimum function of the BBB is necessary for the homeostasis, maintenance, and proper neuronal function. The clinical and experimental findings have shown that BBB dysfunction is an early hallmark of various neurologic disorders ranging from inflammatory autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and traumatic diseases to neuroinvasive infections. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of the regulation of BBB function under homeostatic and neuroinflammatory conditions. Several neurologic disease-modifying drugs have shown to improve the BBB function. However, they have a broad-acting immunomodulatory function and can increase the risk of life-threatening infections. The recent development of in vitro multicomponent 3-dimensional BBB models coupled with fluidics chamber as well as a cell-type specific reporter and knockout mice gave a new boost to our understanding of the dynamics of the BBB. In the review, we discuss the current understanding of BBB composition and recent findings that illustrate the critical regulatory elements of the BBB function under physiologic and inflammatory conditions, and also suggested the strategies to control BBB structure and function.
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52
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Sonar SA, Lal G. Blood–brain barrier and its function during inflammation and autoimmunity. J Leukoc Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/jlb.1ru1117-428r order by 8029-- awyx] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is an important physiologic barrier that separates CNS from soluble inflammatory mediators and effector immune cells from peripheral circulation. The optimum function of the BBB is necessary for the homeostasis, maintenance, and proper neuronal function. The clinical and experimental findings have shown that BBB dysfunction is an early hallmark of various neurologic disorders ranging from inflammatory autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and traumatic diseases to neuroinvasive infections. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of the regulation of BBB function under homeostatic and neuroinflammatory conditions. Several neurologic disease-modifying drugs have shown to improve the BBB function. However, they have a broad-acting immunomodulatory function and can increase the risk of life-threatening infections. The recent development of in vitro multicomponent 3-dimensional BBB models coupled with fluidics chamber as well as a cell-type specific reporter and knockout mice gave a new boost to our understanding of the dynamics of the BBB. In the review, we discuss the current understanding of BBB composition and recent findings that illustrate the critical regulatory elements of the BBB function under physiologic and inflammatory conditions, and also suggested the strategies to control BBB structure and function.
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53
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Sonar SA, Lal G. Blood–brain barrier and its function during inflammation and autoimmunity. J Leukoc Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/jlb.1ru1117-428r order by 1-- #] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is an important physiologic barrier that separates CNS from soluble inflammatory mediators and effector immune cells from peripheral circulation. The optimum function of the BBB is necessary for the homeostasis, maintenance, and proper neuronal function. The clinical and experimental findings have shown that BBB dysfunction is an early hallmark of various neurologic disorders ranging from inflammatory autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and traumatic diseases to neuroinvasive infections. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of the regulation of BBB function under homeostatic and neuroinflammatory conditions. Several neurologic disease-modifying drugs have shown to improve the BBB function. However, they have a broad-acting immunomodulatory function and can increase the risk of life-threatening infections. The recent development of in vitro multicomponent 3-dimensional BBB models coupled with fluidics chamber as well as a cell-type specific reporter and knockout mice gave a new boost to our understanding of the dynamics of the BBB. In the review, we discuss the current understanding of BBB composition and recent findings that illustrate the critical regulatory elements of the BBB function under physiologic and inflammatory conditions, and also suggested the strategies to control BBB structure and function.
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54
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Sonar SA, Lal G. Blood-brain barrier and its function during inflammation and autoimmunity. J Leukoc Biol 2018; 103:839-853. [PMID: 29431873 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.1ru1117-428r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Revised: 01/09/2018] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is an important physiologic barrier that separates CNS from soluble inflammatory mediators and effector immune cells from peripheral circulation. The optimum function of the BBB is necessary for the homeostasis, maintenance, and proper neuronal function. The clinical and experimental findings have shown that BBB dysfunction is an early hallmark of various neurologic disorders ranging from inflammatory autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and traumatic diseases to neuroinvasive infections. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of the regulation of BBB function under homeostatic and neuroinflammatory conditions. Several neurologic disease-modifying drugs have shown to improve the BBB function. However, they have a broad-acting immunomodulatory function and can increase the risk of life-threatening infections. The recent development of in vitro multicomponent 3-dimensional BBB models coupled with fluidics chamber as well as a cell-type specific reporter and knockout mice gave a new boost to our understanding of the dynamics of the BBB. In the review, we discuss the current understanding of BBB composition and recent findings that illustrate the critical regulatory elements of the BBB function under physiologic and inflammatory conditions, and also suggested the strategies to control BBB structure and function.
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55
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Yousef H, Czupalla CJ, Lee D, Butcher EC, Wyss-Coray T. Papain-based Single Cell Isolation of Primary Murine Brain Endothelial Cells Using Flow Cytometry. Bio Protoc 2018; 8:e3091. [PMID: 31032379 DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.3091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain endothelial cells (BECs) form the integral component of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) which separates the systemic milieu from the brain parenchyma and protects the brain from pathogens and circulating factors. In order to study BEC biology, it was of particular interest to establish a method that enables researchers to investigate and understand the underlying molecular mechanisms regulating their function during homeostasis, aging and disease. Furthermore, due to the heterogeneity of the cerebrovasculature and different vessel types that comprise the BBB, it is of particular interest to isolate primary BECs for single cell analysis from various subregions of the brain, such as the neurogenic and highly vascularized hippocampus and to enrich for specific vessel types. In the past, approaches to isolate endothelial cells were dependent on transgenic mice and often resulted in insufficiently pure cell populations and poor yield. This protocol describes a technique that allows single-cell isolation of highly pure brain endothelial cell populations using fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS). Briefly, after perfusion and careful removal of the meninges, and dissection of the cortex/hippocampus, the brain tissue is mechanically homogenized and enzymatically digested resulting in a single cell suspension. Cells are stained with fluorochrome-conjugated antibodies identifying CD31+ brain endothelial cells, as well as CD45+CD11b+ myeloid cells for exclusion. Using flow cytometry, cell populations are separated and CD31+BECs are sorted in bulk into RNA later or as single cells directly into either RNA lysis buffer for single or bulk RNA-Seq analyses. The protocol does not require the expression of a transgene to label brain endothelial cells and thus, may be applied to any mouse model. In our hands, the protocol has been highly reproducible with an average yield of 1 × 105 cells isolated from an adult mouse cortex/hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanadie Yousef
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Cathrin J Czupalla
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Davis Lee
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Eugene C Butcher
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.,VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
| | - Tony Wyss-Coray
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.,VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA
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56
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Zeng A, Ye T, Cao D, Huang X, Yang Y, Chen X, Xie Y, Yao S, Zhao C. Identify a Blood-Brain Barrier Penetrating Drug-TNB using Zebrafish Orthotopic Glioblastoma Xenograft Model. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14372. [PMID: 29085081 PMCID: PMC5662771 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14766-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is necessary for maintaining brain homeostasis, but it also represents a major challenge for drug delivery to the brain tumors. A suitable in vivo Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) model is needed for efficient testing of BBB crossable pharmaceuticals. In this study, we firstly confirmed the BBB functionality in 3dpf zebrafish embryos by Lucifer Yellow, Evans Blue and DAPI microinjection. We then transplanted human GBM tumor cells into the zebrafish brain, in which implanted GBM cells (U87 and U251) were highly mitotic and invasive, mimicking their malignancy features in rodents' brain. Interestingly, we found that, although extensive endothelial proliferation and vessel dilation were observed in GBM xenografts, the BBB was still not disturbed. Next, using the zebrafish orthotopic GBM xenograft model as an in vivo visual readout, we successfully identified a promising small compound named TNB, which could efficiently cross the zebrafish BBB and inhibit the progression of orthotopic GBM xenografts. These results indicate that TNB is a promising BBB crossable GBM drug worth to be further characterized in human BBB setting, also suggest the zebrafish orthotopic GBM model as an efficient visual readout for the BBB penetrating anti-GBM drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anqi Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Sichuan, P.R. China
| | - Tinghong Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Sichuan, P.R. China
| | - Dan Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Sichuan, P.R. China
| | - Xi Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Sichuan, P.R. China
| | - Yu Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Sichuan, P.R. China
| | - Xiuli Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Sichuan, P.R. China
| | - Yongmei Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Sichuan, P.R. China
| | - Shaohua Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Sichuan, P.R. China.
| | - Chengjian Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Sichuan, P.R. China.
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57
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Hupe M, Li MX, Kneitz S, Davydova D, Yokota C, Kele J, Hot B, Stenman JM, Gessler M. Gene expression profiles of brain endothelial cells during embryonic development at bulk and single-cell levels. Sci Signal 2017; 10:10/487/eaag2476. [PMID: 28698213 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.aag2476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier is a dynamic interface that separates the brain from the circulatory system, and it is formed by highly specialized endothelial cells. To explore the molecular mechanisms defining the unique nature of vascular development and differentiation in the brain, we generated high-resolution gene expression profiles of mouse embryonic brain endothelial cells using translating ribosome affinity purification and single-cell RNA sequencing. We compared the brain vascular translatome with the vascular translatomes of other organs and analyzed the vascular translatomes of the brain at different time points during embryonic development. Because canonical Wnt signaling is implicated in the formation of the blood-brain barrier, we also compared the brain endothelial translatome of wild-type mice with that of mice lacking the transcriptional cofactor β-catenin (Ctnnb1). Our analysis revealed extensive molecular changes during the embryonic development of the brain endothelium. We identified genes encoding brain endothelium-specific transcription factors (Foxf2, Foxl2, Foxq1, Lef1, Ppard, Zfp551, and Zic3) that are associated with maturation of the blood-brain barrier and act downstream of the Wnt-β-catenin signaling pathway. Profiling of individual brain endothelial cells revealed substantial heterogeneity in the population. Nevertheless, the high abundance of Foxf2, Foxq1, Ppard, or Zic3 transcripts correlated with the increased expression of genes encoding markers of brain endothelial cell differentiation. Expression of Foxf2 and Zic3 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells induced the production of blood-brain barrier differentiation markers. This comprehensive data set may help to improve the engineering of in vitro blood-brain barrier models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mike Hupe
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research Ltd., Box 240, Stockholm SE-171 77, Sweden. .,Developmental Biochemistry, Theodor Boveri Institute (Biocenter), University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg D-97074, Germany
| | - Minerva Xueting Li
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research Ltd., Box 240, Stockholm SE-171 77, Sweden.,Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm SE-171 77, Sweden
| | - Susanne Kneitz
- Physiological Chemistry, Theodor Boveri Institute (Biocenter), University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg D-97074, Germany
| | - Daria Davydova
- Institute for Clinical Neurobiology, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg D-97078, Germany
| | - Chika Yokota
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research Ltd., Box 240, Stockholm SE-171 77, Sweden
| | - Julianna Kele
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research Ltd., Box 240, Stockholm SE-171 77, Sweden
| | - Belma Hot
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research Ltd., Box 240, Stockholm SE-171 77, Sweden
| | - Jan M Stenman
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research Ltd., Box 240, Stockholm SE-171 77, Sweden
| | - Manfred Gessler
- Developmental Biochemistry, Theodor Boveri Institute (Biocenter), University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg D-97074, Germany.,Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg D-97074, Germany
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58
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Haddad-Tóvolli R, Dragano NRV, Ramalho AFS, Velloso LA. Development and Function of the Blood-Brain Barrier in the Context of Metabolic Control. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:224. [PMID: 28484368 PMCID: PMC5399017 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Under physiological conditions, the brain consumes over 20% of the whole body energy supply. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) allows dynamic interactions between blood capillaries and the neuronal network in order to provide an adequate control of molecules that are transported in and out of the brain. Alterations in the BBB structure and function affecting brain accessibility to nutrients and exit of toxins are found in a number of diseases, which in turn may disturb brain function and nutrient signaling. In this review we explore the major advances obtained in the understanding of the BBB development and how its structure impacts on function. Furthermore, we focus on the particularities of the barrier permeability in the hypothalamus, its role in metabolic control and the potential impact of hypothalamic BBB abnormities in metabolic related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Haddad-Tóvolli
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling and Obesity and Comorbidities Research Center, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of CampinasCampinas, Brazil
| | | | | | - Licio A. Velloso
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling and Obesity and Comorbidities Research Center, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of CampinasCampinas, Brazil
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59
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Neurons secrete miR-132-containing exosomes to regulate brain vascular integrity. Cell Res 2017; 27:882-897. [PMID: 28429770 PMCID: PMC5518987 DOI: 10.1038/cr.2017.62] [Citation(s) in RCA: 245] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Revised: 02/25/2017] [Accepted: 03/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Vascular integrity helps maintain brain microenvironment homeostasis, which is critical for the normal development and function of the central nervous system. It is known that neural cells can regulate brain vascular integrity. However, due to the high complexity of neurovascular interactions involved, understanding of the neural regulation of brain vascular integrity is still rudimentary. Using intact zebrafish larvae and cultured rodent brain cells, we find that neurons transfer miR-132, a highly conserved and neuron-enriched microRNA, via secreting exosomes to endothelial cells (ECs) to maintain brain vascular integrity. Following translocation to ECs through exosome internalization, miR-132 regulates the expression of vascular endothelial cadherin (VE-cadherin), an important adherens junction protein, by directly targeting eukaryotic elongation factor2kinase (eef2k). Disruption of neuronal miR-132 expression or exosome secretion, or overexpression of vascular eef2k impairs VE-cadherin expression and brain vascular integrity. Our study indicates that miR-132 acts as an intercellular signal mediating neural regulation of the brain vascular integrity and suggests that the neuronal exosome is a novel avenue for neurovascular communication.
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60
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Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability Is Regulated by Lipid Transport-Dependent Suppression of Caveolae-Mediated Transcytosis. Neuron 2017; 94:581-594.e5. [PMID: 28416077 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2017.03.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 362] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2016] [Revised: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) provides a constant homeostatic brain environment that is essential for proper neural function. An unusually low rate of vesicular transport (transcytosis) has been identified as one of the two unique properties of CNS endothelial cells, relative to peripheral endothelial cells, that maintain the restrictive quality of the BBB. However, it is not known how this low rate of transcytosis is achieved. Here we provide a mechanism whereby the regulation of CNS endothelial cell lipid composition specifically inhibits the caveolae-mediated transcytotic route readily used in the periphery. An unbiased lipidomic analysis reveals significant differences in endothelial cell lipid signatures from the CNS and periphery, which underlie a suppression of caveolae vesicle formation and trafficking in brain endothelial cells. Furthermore, lipids transported by Mfsd2a establish a unique lipid environment that inhibits caveolae vesicle formation in CNS endothelial cells to suppress transcytosis and ensure BBB integrity.
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61
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Umans RA, Henson HE, Mu F, Parupalli C, Ju B, Peters JL, Lanham KA, Plavicki JS, Taylor MR. CNS angiogenesis and barriergenesis occur simultaneously. Dev Biol 2017; 425:101-108. [PMID: 28365243 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2017.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Revised: 02/24/2017] [Accepted: 03/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) plays a vital role in the central nervous system (CNS). A comprehensive understanding of BBB development has been hampered by difficulties in observing the differentiation of brain endothelial cells (BECs) in real-time. Here, we generated two transgenic zebrafish line, Tg(glut1b:mCherry) and Tg(plvap:EGFP), to serve as in vivo reporters of BBB development. We showed that barriergenesis (i.e. the induction of BEC differentiation) occurs immediately as endothelial tips cells migrate into the brain parenchyma. Using the Tg(glut1b:mCherry) transgenic line, we performed a genetic screen and identified a zebrafish mutant with a nonsense mutation in gpr124, a gene known to play a role in CNS angiogenesis and BBB development. We also showed that our transgenic plvap:EGFP line, a reporter of immature brain endothelium, is initially expressed in newly formed brain endothelial cells, but subsides during BBB maturation. Our results demonstrate the ability to visualize the in vivo differentiation of brain endothelial cells into the BBB phenotype and establish that CNS angiogenesis and barriergenesis occur simultaneously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robyn A Umans
- Department of Chemical Biology & Therapeutics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA; Integrated Program in Biomedical Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Hannah E Henson
- Department of Chemical Biology & Therapeutics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA; Integrated Program in Biomedical Sciences, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Fangzhou Mu
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Division, School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Chaithanyarani Parupalli
- Department of Chemical Biology & Therapeutics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Bensheng Ju
- Department of Chemical Biology & Therapeutics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Jennifer L Peters
- Cell and Tissue Imaging, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Kevin A Lanham
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Division, School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Jessica S Plavicki
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Division, School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Michael R Taylor
- Department of Chemical Biology & Therapeutics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA; Pharmaceutical Sciences Division, School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA.
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62
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Himmels P, Paredes I, Adler H, Karakatsani A, Luck R, Marti HH, Ermakova O, Rempel E, Stoeckli ET, Ruiz de Almodóvar C. Motor neurons control blood vessel patterning in the developing spinal cord. Nat Commun 2017; 8:14583. [PMID: 28262664 PMCID: PMC5343469 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms14583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Formation of a precise vascular network within the central nervous system is of critical importance to assure delivery of oxygen and nutrients and for accurate functionality of neuronal networks. Vascularization of the spinal cord is a highly stereotypical process. However, the guidance cues controlling blood vessel patterning in this organ remain largely unknown. Here we describe a new neuro-vascular communication mechanism that controls vessel guidance in the developing spinal cord. We show that motor neuron columns remain avascular during a developmental time window, despite expressing high levels of the pro-angiogenic vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). We describe that motor neurons express the VEGF trapping receptor sFlt1 via a Neuropilin-1-dependent mechanism. Using a VEGF gain-of-function approach in mice and a motor neuron-specific sFlt1 loss-of-function approach in chicken, we show that motor neurons control blood vessel patterning by an autocrine mechanism that titrates motor neuron-derived VEGF via their own expression of sFlt1. The guidance cues regulating blood vessel patterning in the central nervous system remain unclear. Here, the authors show in mice and chicken developing spinal cord that motor neurons control blood vessel patterning by an autocrine mechanism titrating VEGF via the expression of its trapping receptor sFlt1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Himmels
- Biochemistry Center, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.,Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Isidora Paredes
- Biochemistry Center, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.,Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Heike Adler
- Biochemistry Center, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.,Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Andromachi Karakatsani
- Biochemistry Center, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.,Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Robert Luck
- Biochemistry Center, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.,Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Hugo H Marti
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Olga Ermakova
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Organismal Studies, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Eugen Rempel
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, Centre for Organismal Studies, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Esther T Stoeckli
- Institute of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Carmen Ruiz de Almodóvar
- Biochemistry Center, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.,Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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63
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Hetero-oligomerization between the TNF receptor superfamily members CD40, Fas and TRAILR2 modulate CD40 signalling. Cell Death Dis 2017; 8:e2601. [PMID: 28182009 PMCID: PMC5386471 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2017.22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Revised: 12/23/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
TNF receptor superfamily members (TNFRSF) such as CD40, Fas and TRAIL receptor 2 (TRAILR2) participate to the adaptive immune response by eliciting survival, proliferation, differentiation and/or cell death signals. The balance between these signals determines the fate of the immune response. It was previously reported that these receptors are able to self-assemble in the absence of ligand through their extracellular regions. However, the role of this oligomerization is not well understood, and none of the proposed hypotheses take into account potential hetero-association of receptors. Using CD40 as bait in a flow cytometry Förster resonance energy transfer assay, TNFRSF members with known functions in B cells were probed for interactions. Both Fas and TRAILR2 associated with CD40. Immunoprecipitation experiments confirmed the interaction of CD40 with Fas at the endogenous levels in a BJAB B-cell lymphoma cell line deficient for TRAILR2. TRAILR2-expressing BJAB cells displayed a robust CD40–TRAILR2 interaction at the expense of the CD40–Fas interaction. The same results were obtained by proximity ligation assay, using TRAILR2-positive and -negative BJAB cells and primary human B cells. Expression of the extracellular domains of Fas or TRAILR2 with a glycolipid membrane anchor specifically reduced the intrinsic signalling pathway of CD40 in 293T cells. Conversely, BJAB cells lacking endogenous Fas or TRAILR2 showed an increased NF-κB response to CD40L. Finally, upregulation of TRAILR2 in primary human B cells correlated with reduced NF-κB activation and reduced proliferation in response to CD40L. Altogether, these data reveal that selective interactions between different TNFRSF members may modulate ligand-induced responses upstream signalling events.
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64
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Yang R, Zhang Y, Huang D, Luo X, Zhang L, Zhu X, Zhang X, Liu Z, Han JY, Xiong JW. Miconazole protects blood vessels from MMP9-dependent rupture and hemorrhage. Dis Model Mech 2017; 10:337-348. [PMID: 28153846 PMCID: PMC5374319 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.027268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 01/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemorrhagic stroke accounts for 10-15% of all strokes and is strongly
associated with mortality and morbidity worldwide, but its prevention and
therapeutic interventions remain a major challenge. Here, we report the
identification of miconazole as a hemorrhagic suppressor by a small-molecule
screen in zebrafish. We found that a hypomorphic mutant fn40a,
one of several known β-pix mutant alleles in zebrafish,
had the major symptoms of brain hemorrhage, vessel rupture and inflammation as
those in hemorrhagic stroke patients. A small-molecule screen with mutant
embryos identified the anti-fungal drug miconazole as a potent hemorrhagic
suppressor. Miconazole inhibited both brain hemorrhages in zebrafish and
mesenteric hemorrhages in rats by decreasing matrix metalloproteinase 9
(MMP9)-dependent vessel rupture. Mechanistically, miconazole downregulated the
levels of pErk and Mmp9 to protect vascular integrity in fn40a
mutants. Therefore, our findings demonstrate that miconazole protects blood
vessels from hemorrhages by downregulating the pERK-MMP9 axis from zebrafish to
mammals and shed light on the potential of phenotype-based screens in zebrafish
for the discovery of new drug candidates and chemical probes for hemorrhagic
stroke. Summary: A phenotype-based chemical screen in zebrafish identifies
miconazole as a novel hemorrhagic suppressor. Miconazole inhibits vessel rupture
and hemorrhages by decreasing pErk and MMP9 in zebrafish and rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ran Yang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Cardiometabolic Molecular Medicine, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.,State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yunpei Zhang
- Department of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Dandan Huang
- Department of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xiao Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Liangren Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Xiaojun Zhu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Cardiometabolic Molecular Medicine, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.,State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Xiaolin Zhang
- AstraZeneca Asia and Emerging Market Innovative Medicine and Early Development, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Zhenming Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Jing-Yan Han
- Department of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Jing-Wei Xiong
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Cardiometabolic Molecular Medicine, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China .,State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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65
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Wälchli T, Ulmann-Schuler A, Hintermüller C, Meyer E, Stampanoni M, Carmeliet P, Emmert MY, Bozinov O, Regli L, Schwab ME, Vogel J, Hoerstrup SP. Nogo-A regulates vascular network architecture in the postnatal brain. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2017; 37:614-631. [PMID: 27927704 PMCID: PMC5381465 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x16675182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Recently, we discovered a new role for the well-known axonal growth inhibitory molecule Nogo-A as a negative regulator of angiogenesis in the developing central nervous system. However, how Nogo-A affected the three-dimensional (3D) central nervous system (CNS) vascular network architecture remained unknown. Here, using vascular corrosion casting, hierarchical, synchrotron radiation μCT-based network imaging and computer-aided network analysis, we found that genetic ablation of Nogo-A significantly increased the three-dimensional vascular volume fraction in the postnatal day 10 (P10) mouse brain. More detailed analysis of the cerebral cortex revealed that this effect was mainly due to an increased number of capillaries and capillary branchpoints. Interestingly, other vascular parameters such as vessel diameter, -length, -tortuosity, and -volume were comparable between both genotypes for non-capillary vessels and capillaries. Taken together, our three-dimensional data showing more vessel segments and branchpoints at unchanged vessel morphology suggest that stimulated angiogenesis upon Nogo-A gene deletion results in the insertion of complete capillary micro-networks and not just single vessels into existing vascular networks. These findings significantly enhance our understanding of how angiogenesis, vascular remodeling, and three-dimensional vessel network architecture are regulated during central nervous system development. Nogo-A may therefore be a potential novel target for angiogenesis-dependent central nervous system pathologies such as brain tumors or stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Wälchli
- 1 Group of CNS Angiogenesis and Neurovascular Link, and Physician-Scientist Program, Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Neuroscience Center Zurich, and Division of Neurosurgery, University and University Hospital Zurich, Switzerland, and Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,2 Division of Neurosurgery and Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-Oncology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,3 Brain Research Institute, University of Zurich and Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Eric Meyer
- 3 Brain Research Institute, University of Zurich and Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Marco Stampanoni
- 6 Swiss Light Source, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland.,7 Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University and ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Peter Carmeliet
- 8 Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Vascular Metabolism, Vesalius Research Center, Leuven, Belgium.,9 Department of Oncology, Laboratory of Angiogenesis and Neurovascular Link, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Maximilian Y Emmert
- 10 Institute for Regenerative Medicine and Clinic for Cardiovascular Surgery, University Hospital Zurich.,11 Wyss Translational Center Zurich, University of Zurich and Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Oliver Bozinov
- 2 Division of Neurosurgery and Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-Oncology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Luca Regli
- 2 Division of Neurosurgery and Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-Oncology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Martin E Schwab
- 3 Brain Research Institute, University of Zurich and Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Johannes Vogel
- 12 Institute of Veterinary Physiology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Simon P Hoerstrup
- 10 Institute for Regenerative Medicine and Clinic for Cardiovascular Surgery, University Hospital Zurich.,11 Wyss Translational Center Zurich, University of Zurich and Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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66
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Baxendale S, van Eeden F, Wilkinson R. The Power of Zebrafish in Personalised Medicine. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 1007:179-197. [PMID: 28840558 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-60733-7_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The goal of personalised medicine is to develop tailor-made therapies for patients in whom currently available therapeutics fail. This approach requires correlating individual patient genotype data to specific disease phenotype data and using these stratified data sets to identify bespoke therapeutics. Applications for personalised medicine include common complex diseases which may have multiple targets, as well as rare monogenic disorders, for which the target may be unknown. In both cases, whole genome sequence analysis (WGS) is discovering large numbers of disease associated mutations in new candidate genes and potential modifier genes. Currently, the main limiting factor is the determination of which mutated genes are important for disease progression and therefore represent potential targets for drug discovery. Zebrafish have gained popularity as a model organism for understanding developmental processes, disease mechanisms and more recently for drug discovery and toxicity testing. In this chapter, we will examine the diverse roles that zebrafish can make in the expanding field of personalised medicine, from generating humanised disease models to xenograft screening of different cancer cell lines, through to finding new drugs via in vivo phenotypic screens. We will discuss the tools available for zebrafish research and recent advances in techniques, highlighting the advantages and potential of using zebrafish for high throughput disease modeling and precision drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Baxendale
- The Bateson Centre, Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK.
| | - Freek van Eeden
- The Bateson Centre, Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - Robert Wilkinson
- The Bateson Centre, Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK.,Department of Infection, Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, Medical School, Beech Hill Rd, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2RX, UK
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67
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Stem Cells as a Promising Tool for the Restoration of Brain Neurovascular Unit and Angiogenic Orientation. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:7689-7705. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0286-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/02/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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68
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Nowak MR. Automated neurovascular tracing and analysis of the knife-edge scanning microscope Rat Nissl data set using a computing cluster. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2016; 2016:6445-6448. [PMID: 28269722 DOI: 10.1109/embc.2016.7592204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We present a novel, parallelizable algorithm capable of automatically reconstructing and calculating anatomical statistics of cerebral vascular networks embedded in large volumes of Rat Nissl-stained data. In this paper, we report the results of our method using Rattus somatosensory cortical data acquired using Knife-Edge Scanning Microscopy. Our algorithm performs the reconstruction task with averaged precision, recall, and F2-score of 0.978, 0.892, and 0.902 respectively. Calculated anatomical statistics show some conformance to values previously reported. The results that can be obtained from our method are expected to help explicate the relationship between the structural organization of the microcirculation and normal (and abnormal) cerebral functioning.
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69
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Chow BW, Gu C. The molecular constituents of the blood-brain barrier. Trends Neurosci 2016; 38:598-608. [PMID: 26442694 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2015.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 249] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Revised: 08/17/2015] [Accepted: 08/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) maintains the optimal microenvironment in the central nervous system (CNS) for proper brain function. The BBB comprises specialized CNS endothelial cells with fundamental molecular properties essential for the function and integrity of the BBB. The restrictive nature of the BBB hinders the delivery of therapeutics for many neurological disorders. In addition, recent evidence shows that BBB dysfunction can precede or hasten the progression of several neurological diseases. Despite the physiological significance of the BBB in health and disease, major discoveries of the molecular regulators of BBB formation and function have occurred only recently. This review highlights recent findings describing the molecular determinants and core cellular pathways that confer BBB properties on CNS endothelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Wai Chow
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, 220 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MN 02115, USA
| | - Chenghua Gu
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, 220 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MN 02115, USA.
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70
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Zhao Z, Nelson AR, Betsholtz C, Zlokovic BV. Establishment and Dysfunction of the Blood-Brain Barrier. Cell 2016; 163:1064-1078. [PMID: 26590417 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2015.10.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1052] [Impact Index Per Article: 131.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Structural and functional brain connectivity, synaptic activity, and information processing require highly coordinated signal transduction between different cell types within the neurovascular unit and intact blood-brain barrier (BBB) functions. Here, we examine the mechanisms regulating the formation and maintenance of the BBB and functions of BBB-associated cell types. Furthermore, we discuss the growing evidence associating BBB breakdown with the pathogenesis of inherited monogenic neurological disorders and complex multifactorial diseases, including Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Zhao
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics and the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Amy R Nelson
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics and the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Christer Betsholtz
- Department of Immunology, Genetics, and Pathology, Rudbeck Laboratory, 75185 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Berislav V Zlokovic
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics and the Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA.
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71
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Death receptor 6 (DR6) is required for mouse B16 tumor angiogenesis via the NF-κB, P38 MAPK and STAT3 pathways. Oncogenesis 2016; 5:e206. [PMID: 26950598 PMCID: PMC4815052 DOI: 10.1038/oncsis.2016.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2015] [Revised: 12/06/2015] [Accepted: 12/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Although death receptor 6 (DR6) is aberrantly expressed in certain cancer cell lines, its function, signaling pathway and potential clinical significance in tumor progression are not well characterized. We report here that knocking down DR6 in the mouse B16 cell line has no effect on B16 cell death in vitro but suppresses xenograft B16 tumor growth by preventing tumor blood vessel formation in vivo. Deficiency of DR6 changes cytokine expression and secretion; in particular, it inhibits the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6), which is able to induce the expression of the angiogenesis-related factors: vascular endothelial growth factor-A, platelet-derived growth factor-β, vascular endothelial growth factor-D and platelet-derived growth factor receptor-α. Further experiments demonstrate that DR6-dependent angiogenesis is involved in the IL-6/P38 MAPK and IL-6/STAT3 pathways. Our novel findings demonstrate for the first time that DR6 expression in B16 cells facilitates tumor growth by accelerating tumor angiogenesis. Moreover, these results suggest that DR6 is involved in three important intracellular pathways that lead to homeostatic angiogenesis in tumor growth.
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72
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De Jesús Andino F, Jones L, Maggirwar SB, Robert J. Frog Virus 3 dissemination in the brain of tadpoles, but not in adult Xenopus, involves blood brain barrier dysfunction. Sci Rep 2016; 6:22508. [PMID: 26931458 PMCID: PMC4773881 DOI: 10.1038/srep22508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
While increasing evidence points to a key role of monocytes in amphibian host defenses, monocytes are also thought to be important in the dissemination and persistent infection caused by ranavirus. However, little is known about the fate of infected macrophages or if ranavirus exploits immune privileged organs, such as the brain, in order to establish a reservoir. The amphibian Xenopus laevis and Frog Virus 3 (FV3) were established as an experimental platform for investigating in vivo whether ranavirus could disseminate to the brain. Our data show that the FV3 infection alters the BBB integrity, possibly mediated by an inflammatory response, which leads to viral dissemination into the central nervous system in X. laevis tadpole but not adult. Furthermore, our data suggest that the macrophages play a major role in viral dissemination by carrying the virus into the neural tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco De Jesús Andino
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Letitia Jones
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Sanjay B Maggirwar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Jacques Robert
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
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73
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Zuchero Y, Chen X, Bien-Ly N, Bumbaca D, Tong R, Gao X, Zhang S, Hoyte K, Luk W, Huntley M, Phu L, Tan C, Kallop D, Weimer R, Lu Y, Kirkpatrick D, Ernst J, Chih B, Dennis M, Watts R. Discovery of Novel Blood-Brain Barrier Targets to Enhance Brain Uptake of Therapeutic Antibodies. Neuron 2016; 89:70-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2015.11.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Revised: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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74
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Pandey PK, Sharma AK, Gupta U. Blood brain barrier: An overview on strategies in drug delivery, realistic in vitro modeling and in vivo live tracking. Tissue Barriers 2016; 4:e1129476. [PMID: 27141418 PMCID: PMC4836458 DOI: 10.1080/21688370.2015.1129476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Revised: 12/01/2015] [Accepted: 12/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Blood brain barrier (BBB) is a group of astrocytes, neurons and endothelial cells, which makes restricted passage of various biological or chemical entities to the brain tissue. It gives protection to brain at one hand, but at the other hand it has very selective permeability for bio-actives and other foreign materials and is one of the major challenges for the drug delivery. Nanocarriers are promising to cross BBB utilizing alternative route of administration such as intranasal and intra-carotid drug delivery which bypasses BBB. In future more optimized drug delivery system can be achieved by compiling the best routes with the best carriers. Single photon emission tomography (SPECT) and different brain-on-a-chip in vitro models are being very reliable to study live in vivo tracking of BBB and its pathophysiology, respectively. In the current review we have tried to exploit mechanistically all these to understand and manage the various BBB disruptions in diseased condition along with crossing the hurdles occurring in drug or gene delivery across BBB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pawan Kumar Pandey
- Department of Pharmacy; School of Chemical Sciences and Pharmacy, Central University of Rajasthan; Ajmer; Rajasthan, India
| | - Ashok Kumar Sharma
- Department of Pharmacy; School of Chemical Sciences and Pharmacy, Central University of Rajasthan; Ajmer; Rajasthan, India
| | - Umesh Gupta
- Department of Pharmacy; School of Chemical Sciences and Pharmacy, Central University of Rajasthan; Ajmer; Rajasthan, India
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75
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Ulrich F, Carretero-Ortega J, Menéndez J, Narvaez C, Sun B, Lancaster E, Pershad V, Trzaska S, Véliz E, Kamei M, Prendergast A, Kidd KR, Shaw KM, Castranova DA, Pham VN, Lo BD, Martin BL, Raible DW, Weinstein BM, Torres-Vázquez J. Reck enables cerebrovascular development by promoting canonical Wnt signaling. Development 2015; 143:147-59. [PMID: 26657775 DOI: 10.1242/dev.123059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2015] [Accepted: 11/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The cerebral vasculature provides the massive blood supply that the brain needs to grow and survive. By acquiring distinctive cellular and molecular characteristics it becomes the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a selectively permeable and protective interface between the brain and the peripheral circulation that maintains the extracellular milieu permissive for neuronal activity. Accordingly, there is great interest in uncovering the mechanisms that modulate the formation and differentiation of the brain vasculature. By performing a forward genetic screen in zebrafish we isolated no food for thought (nft (y72)), a recessive late-lethal mutant that lacks most of the intracerebral central arteries (CtAs), but not other brain blood vessels. We found that the cerebral vascularization deficit of nft (y72) mutants is caused by an inactivating lesion in reversion-inducing cysteine-rich protein with Kazal motifs [reck; also known as suppressor of tumorigenicity 15 protein (ST15)], which encodes a membrane-anchored tumor suppressor glycoprotein. Our findings highlight Reck as a novel and pivotal modulator of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway that acts in endothelial cells to enable intracerebral vascularization and proper expression of molecular markers associated with BBB formation. Additional studies with cultured endothelial cells suggest that, in other contexts, Reck impacts vascular biology via the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) cascade. Together, our findings have broad implications for both vascular and cancer biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Ulrich
- Dept of Cell Biology, Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, NYU Langone Medical Center, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Jorge Carretero-Ortega
- Dept of Cell Biology, Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, NYU Langone Medical Center, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Javier Menéndez
- Dept of Cell Biology, Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, NYU Langone Medical Center, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Carlos Narvaez
- Dept of Cell Biology, Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, NYU Langone Medical Center, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Belinda Sun
- Dept of Cell Biology, Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, NYU Langone Medical Center, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Eva Lancaster
- Dept of Cell Biology, Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, NYU Langone Medical Center, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Valerie Pershad
- Dept of Cell Biology, Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, NYU Langone Medical Center, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Sean Trzaska
- Dept of Cell Biology, Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, NYU Langone Medical Center, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Evelyn Véliz
- Dept of Cell Biology, Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, NYU Langone Medical Center, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Makoto Kamei
- Program in Genomics of Differentiation, The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Andrew Prendergast
- Department of Biological Structure, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Kameha R Kidd
- Program in Genomics of Differentiation, The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Kenna M Shaw
- Program in Genomics of Differentiation, The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Daniel A Castranova
- Program in Genomics of Differentiation, The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Van N Pham
- Program in Genomics of Differentiation, The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Brigid D Lo
- Program in Genomics of Differentiation, The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | | | - David W Raible
- Department of Biological Structure, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Brant M Weinstein
- Program in Genomics of Differentiation, The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jesús Torres-Vázquez
- Dept of Cell Biology, Skirball Institute of Biomolecular Medicine, NYU Langone Medical Center, 540 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
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76
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77
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Abstract
The vascular and the nervous system are responsible for oxygen, nutrient, and information transfer and thereby constitute highly important communication systems in higher organisms. These functional similarities are reflected at the anatomical, cellular, and molecular levels, where common developmental principles and mutual crosstalks have evolved to coordinate their action. This resemblance of the two systems at different levels of complexity has been termed the "neurovascular link." Most of the evidence demonstrating neurovascular interactions derives from studies outside the CNS and from the CNS tissue of the retina. However, little is known about the specific properties of the neurovascular link in the brain. Here, we focus on regulatory effects of molecules involved in the neurovascular link on angiogenesis in the periphery and in the brain and distinguish between general and CNS-specific cues for angiogenesis. Moreover, we discuss the emerging molecular interactions of these angiogenic cues with the VEGF-VEGFR-Delta-like ligand 4 (Dll4)-Jagged-Notch pathway.
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78
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Keaney J, Campbell M. The dynamic blood-brain barrier. FEBS J 2015; 282:4067-79. [DOI: 10.1111/febs.13412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 338] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Revised: 07/20/2015] [Accepted: 08/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- James Keaney
- Smurfit Institute of Genetics; Trinity College Dublin; Ireland
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79
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Broux B, Gowing E, Prat A. Glial regulation of the blood-brain barrier in health and disease. Semin Immunopathol 2015; 37:577-90. [PMID: 26245144 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-015-0516-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2015] [Accepted: 07/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The brain is the organ with the highest metabolic demand in the body. Therefore, it needs specialized vasculature to provide it with the necessary oxygen and nutrients, while protecting it against pathogens and toxins. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is very tightly regulated by specialized endothelial cells, two basement membranes, and astrocytic endfeet. The proximity of astrocytes to the vessel makes them perfect candidates to influence the function of the BBB. Moreover, other glial cells are also known to contribute to either BBB quiescence or breakdown. In this review, we summarize the knowledge on glial regulation of the BBB during development, in homeostatic conditions in the adult, and during neuroinflammatory responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bieke Broux
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), 900 Rue Saint Denis Street, Room R9.912, Montréal, Québec, Canada, H2X 0A9
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada
- Hasselt University, Biomedical Research Institute and transnationale Universiteit Limburg, School of Life Sciences, Agoralaan, Building C, 3590, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Elizabeth Gowing
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), 900 Rue Saint Denis Street, Room R9.912, Montréal, Québec, Canada, H2X 0A9
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada
| | - Alexandre Prat
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), 900 Rue Saint Denis Street, Room R9.912, Montréal, Québec, Canada, H2X 0A9.
- Department of Neuroscience, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada.
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80
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Tietz S, Engelhardt B. Brain barriers: Crosstalk between complex tight junctions and adherens junctions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 209:493-506. [PMID: 26008742 PMCID: PMC4442813 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201412147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 340] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Unique intercellular junctional complexes between the central nervous system (CNS) microvascular endothelial cells and the choroid plexus epithelial cells form the endothelial blood–brain barrier (BBB) and the epithelial blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB), respectively. These barriers inhibit paracellular diffusion, thereby protecting the CNS from fluctuations in the blood. Studies of brain barrier integrity during development, normal physiology, and disease have focused on BBB and BCSFB tight junctions but not the corresponding endothelial and epithelial adherens junctions. The crosstalk between adherens junctions and tight junctions in maintaining barrier integrity is an understudied area that may represent a promising target for influencing brain barrier function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Tietz
- Theodor Kocher Institute, University of Bern, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Britta Engelhardt
- Theodor Kocher Institute, University of Bern, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
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81
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Abstract
The developing central nervous system (CNS) is vascularised through the angiogenic invasion of blood vessels from a perineural vascular plexus, followed by continued sprouting and remodelling until a hierarchical vascular network is formed. Remarkably, vascularisation occurs without perturbing the intricate architecture of the neurogenic niches or the emerging neural networks. We discuss the mouse hindbrain, forebrain and retina as widely used models to study developmental angiogenesis in the mammalian CNS and provide an overview of key cellular and molecular mechanisms regulating the vascularisation of these organs. CNS vascularisation is initiated during embryonic development. CNS vascularisation is studied in the mouse forebrain, hindbrain and retina models. Neuroglial cells interact with endothelial cells to promote angiogenesis. Neuroglial cells produce growth factors and matrix cues to pattern vessels.
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82
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Sonar S, Lal G. Role of Tumor Necrosis Factor Superfamily in Neuroinflammation and Autoimmunity. Front Immunol 2015; 6:364. [PMID: 26257732 PMCID: PMC4507150 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Accepted: 07/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor superfamily (TNFSF) molecules play an important role in the activation, proliferation, differentiation, and migration of immune cells into the central nervous system (CNS). Several TNF superfamily molecules are known to control alloimmunity, autoimmunity, and immunity. Development of transgenic and gene knockout animals, and monoclonal antibodies against TNFSF molecules have increased our understanding of individual receptor-ligand interactions, and their intracellular signaling during homeostasis and neuroinflammation. A strong clinical association has been observed between TNFSF members and CNS autoimmunity such as multiple sclerosis and also in its animal model experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Therefore, they are promising targets for alternative therapeutic options to control autoimmunity. Although, TNFSF ligands are widely distributed and have diverse functions, we have restricted the discussions in this review to TNFSF receptor-ligand interactions and their role in the pathogenesis of neuroinflammation and CNS autoimmunity.
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83
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Abstract
The brain, which represents 2% of body mass but consumes 20% of body energy at rest, has a limited capacity to store energy and is therefore highly dependent on oxygen and glucose supply from the blood stream. Normal functioning of neural circuits thus relies on adequate matching between metabolic needs and blood supply. Moreover, not only does the brain need to be densely vascularized, it also requires a tightly controlled environment free of toxins and pathogens to provide the proper chemical composition for synaptic transmission and neuronal function. In this review, we focus on three major factors that ensure optimal brain perfusion and function: the patterning of vascular networks to efficiently deliver blood and nutrients, the function of the blood-brain barrier to maintain brain homeostasis, and the regulation of cerebral blood flow to adequately couple energy supply to neural function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin J Andreone
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115; , ,
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84
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Abstract
Zebrafish (Danio rerio) have been extensively used to study apoptotic cell death during normal development and under a wide range of experimental manipulations. A number of features make zebrafish a particularly powerful model organism: (1) embryos are small in size, develop rapidly outside the mother, and are optically transparent; (2) tools are readily available for rapid knockdown and overexpression of genes; and (3) embryos can be arrayed into multiwell plates and are permeable to a wide range of drugs and small molecules. The molecular machinery underlying the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis pathways appears to be highly conserved between zebrafish and mammals. In this chapter, techniques are described for detecting apoptotic cells in situ in both fixed and live zebrafish embryos. Methods for inducing and inhibiting apoptosis and for functionally manipulating genes involved in apoptotic signaling are also discussed.
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85
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Inflammatory signaling regulates hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell emergence in vertebrates. Blood 2015; 125:1098-106. [DOI: 10.1182/blood-2014-09-601542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Key Points
TLR4–MyD88–NF-κB is required for HSPC emergence in zebrafish and mouse embryos. Notch functions downstream of inflammatory signaling to regulate HSPC emergence.
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86
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Prabowo AS, Iyer AM, Veersema TJ, Anink JJ, Schouten-van Meeteren AYN, Spliet WGM, van Rijen PC, Ferrier CH, Thom M, Aronica E. Expression of neurodegenerative disease-related proteins and caspase-3 in glioneuronal tumours. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2015; 41:e1-e15. [DOI: 10.1111/nan.12143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2014] [Accepted: 04/04/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A. S. Prabowo
- Department of (Neuro)Pathology; Academic Medical Center; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - A. M. Iyer
- Department of (Neuro)Pathology; Academic Medical Center; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - T. J. Veersema
- Department of Neurosurgery; University Medical Center Utrecht; Utrecht The Netherlands
- Department of Neurology; University Medical Center Utrecht; Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - J. J. Anink
- Department of (Neuro)Pathology; Academic Medical Center; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - A. Y. N. Schouten-van Meeteren
- Department of Pediatric Oncology; Emma Children's Hospital; Academic Medical Center; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - W. G. M. Spliet
- Rudolf Magnus Institute for Neuroscience and Pathology; University Medical Center Utrecht; Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - P. C. van Rijen
- Department of Neurosurgery; University Medical Center Utrecht; Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - C. H. Ferrier
- Department of Neurology; University Medical Center Utrecht; Utrecht The Netherlands
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology; University Medical Center Utrecht; Utrecht The Netherlands
| | - M. Thom
- Neuropathology Department; University College London Institute of Neurology; London UK
| | - E. Aronica
- Department of (Neuro)Pathology; Academic Medical Center; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences; Center for Neuroscience; University of Amsterdam; Amsterdam The Netherlands
- SEIN - Stichting Epilepsie Instellingen Nederland; Heemstede The Netherlands
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87
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Hagan N, Ben-Zvi A. The molecular, cellular, and morphological components of blood-brain barrier development during embryogenesis. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2014; 38:7-15. [PMID: 25550218 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2014.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Revised: 11/24/2014] [Accepted: 12/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The blood brain barrier (BBB) is a hallmark of blood vessels in the brain and functions to protect the brain from unwanted blood born materials, support the unique metabolic needs of the brain, and define a stable environment crucial for brain homeostasis. The temporal profile of BBB development was long debated until recent studies produced convincing evidence demonstrating that the BBB is established and functional during embryogenesis. Here we review research focused on the molecular, cellular and morphological characteristics of BBB development. Our review discusses the precise temporal profile of BBB formation, the development of endothelial cell ultrastructure and the molecular components that provide sealing and transporting properties, the molecular pathways involved in the induction of BBB specific endothelial cell differentiation, the signaling pathways driving developmental angiogenesis versus barrier-genesis, and finally the contribution of other cell types to BBB formation. We examine aspects of BBB development that are still unresolved while highlighting research tools that could provide new insight to answer these open questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nellwyn Hagan
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, 220 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Ayal Ben-Zvi
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, 220 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Developmental Biology and Cancer Research, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel.
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88
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Huntley MA, Bien-Ly N, Daneman R, Watts RJ. Dissecting gene expression at the blood-brain barrier. Front Neurosci 2014; 8:355. [PMID: 25414634 PMCID: PMC4222230 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2014.00355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2014] [Accepted: 10/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The availability of genome-wide expression data for the blood-brain barrier is an invaluable resource that has recently enabled the discovery of several genes and pathways involved in the development and maintenance of the blood-brain barrier, particularly in rodent models. The broad distribution of published data sets represents a viable starting point for the molecular dissection of the blood-brain barrier and will further direct the discovery of novel mechanisms of blood-brain barrier formation and function. Technical advances in purifying brain endothelial cells, the key cell that forms the critical barrier, have allowed for greater specificity in gene expression comparisons with other central nervous system cell types, and more systematic characterizations of the molecular composition of the blood-brain barrier. Nevertheless, our understanding of how the blood-brain barrier changes during aging and disease is underrepresented. Blood-brain barrier data sets from a wider range of experimental paradigms and species, including invertebrates and primates, would be invaluable for investigating the function and evolution of the blood-brain barrier. Newer technologies in gene expression profiling, such as RNA-sequencing, now allow for finer resolution of transcriptomic changes, including isoform specificity and RNA-editing. As our field continues to utilize more advanced expression profiling in its ongoing efforts to elucidate the blood-brain barrier, including in disease and drug delivery, we will continue to see rapid advances in our understanding of the molecular mediators of barrier biology. We predict that the recently published data sets, combined with forthcoming genomic and proteomic blood-brain barrier data sets, will continue to fuel the molecular genetic revolution of blood-brain barrier biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie A Huntley
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Genentech Inc. South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Nga Bien-Ly
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech Inc. South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Richard Daneman
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Ryan J Watts
- Department of Neuroscience, Genentech Inc. South San Francisco, CA, USA
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89
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A death receptor 6-amyloid precursor protein pathway regulates synapse density in the mature CNS but does not contribute to Alzheimer's disease-related pathophysiology in murine models. J Neurosci 2014; 34:6425-37. [PMID: 24806669 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.4963-13.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies implicate death receptor 6 (DR6) in an amyloid precursor protein (APP)-dependent pathway regulating developmental axon pruning, and in a pruning pathway operating during plastic rearrangements in adult brain. DR6 has also been suggested to mediate toxicity in vitro of Aβ peptides derived from APP. Given the link between APP, Aβ, and Alzheimer's disease (AD), these findings have raised the possibility that DR6 contributes to aspects of neurodegeneration in AD. To test this possibility, we have used mouse models to characterize potential function(s) of DR6 in the adult CNS and in AD-related pathophysiology. We show that DR6 is broadly expressed within the adult CNS and regulates the density of excitatory synaptic connections onto pyramidal neurons in a genetic pathway with APP. DR6 knock-out also gives rise to behavioral abnormalities, some of which are similar to those previously documented in APP knock-out animals. However, in two distinct APP transgenic models of AD, we did not observe any alteration in the formation of amyloid plaques, gliosis, synaptic loss, or cognitive behavioral deficits with genetic deletion of DR6, though we did observe a transient reduction in the degree of microglial activation in one model. Our results support the view that DR6 functions with APP to modulate synaptic density in the adult CNS, but do not provide evidence for a role of DR6 in the pathophysiology of AD.
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90
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Dysfunctional Wnt/β-catenin signaling contributes to blood-brain barrier breakdown in Alzheimer's disease. Neurochem Int 2014; 75:19-25. [PMID: 24859746 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2014.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2014] [Revised: 04/17/2014] [Accepted: 05/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Increased Aβ clearance from brain is essential for restoring the pathological manifestation of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and attenuating the cognitive disorder. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) plays a critical role in maintaining homeostasis of the brain, and transporters e.g. P-glycoprotein (P-gp) are essential for Aβ clearance from the brain. In addition, the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway contributes to BBB formation, induction and maturation, and induces BBB function. Dysfunctional Wnt/β-catenin signaling in the BBB reveals the importance of this pathway, since this contributes to the neurodegeneration characteristic of AD. Based on the above evidence, we propose that targeting the canonical Wnt signaling pathway could be promising therapeutic approach for treatment of AD.
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91
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Mfsd2a is critical for the formation and function of the blood-brain barrier. Nature 2014; 509:507-11. [PMID: 24828040 DOI: 10.1038/nature13324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 686] [Impact Index Per Article: 68.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2013] [Accepted: 04/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) requires a tightly controlled environment free of toxins and pathogens to provide the proper chemical composition for neural function. This environment is maintained by the 'blood-brain barrier' (BBB), which is composed of blood vessels whose endothelial cells display specialized tight junctions and extremely low rates of transcellular vesicular transport (transcytosis). In concert with pericytes and astrocytes, this unique brain endothelial physiological barrier seals the CNS and controls substance influx and efflux. Although BBB breakdown has recently been associated with initiation and perpetuation of various neurological disorders, an intact BBB is a major obstacle for drug delivery to the CNS. A limited understanding of the molecular mechanisms that control BBB formation has hindered our ability to manipulate the BBB in disease and therapy. Here we identify mechanisms governing the establishment of a functional BBB. First, using a novel tracer-injection method for embryos, we demonstrate spatiotemporal developmental profiles of BBB functionality and find that the mouse BBB becomes functional at embryonic day 15.5 (E15.5). We then screen for BBB-specific genes expressed during BBB formation, and find that major facilitator super family domain containing 2a (Mfsd2a) is selectively expressed in BBB-containing blood vessels in the CNS. Genetic ablation of Mfsd2a results in a leaky BBB from embryonic stages through to adulthood, but the normal patterning of vascular networks is maintained. Electron microscopy examination reveals a dramatic increase in CNS-endothelial-cell vesicular transcytosis in Mfsd2a(-/-) mice, without obvious tight-junction defects. Finally we show that Mfsd2a endothelial expression is regulated by pericytes to facilitate BBB integrity. These findings identify Mfsd2a as a key regulator of BBB function that may act by suppressing transcytosis in CNS endothelial cells. Furthermore, our findings may aid in efforts to develop therapeutic approaches for CNS drug delivery.
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92
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Poissonnier L, Villain G, Soncin F, Mattot V. Egfl7 is differentially expressed in arteries and veins during retinal vascular development. PLoS One 2014; 9:e90455. [PMID: 24595089 PMCID: PMC3942447 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2013] [Accepted: 02/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The vasculature of the central nervous system (CNS) is composed of vascular endothelial and mural cells which interact closely with glial cells and neurons. The development of the CNS vascularisation is a unique process which requires the contribution of specific regulators in addition to the classical angiogenic factors. The egfl7 gene is mainly detected in endothelial cells during physiological and pathological angiogenesis. Egfl7 codes for a secreted protein which predominantly accumulates into the extracellular space where it controls vascular elastin deposition or the Notch pathway. Egfl7 is the host gene of the microRNA miR126 which is also expressed in endothelial cells and which plays major functions during blood vessel development. While the expression of egfl7 and that of miR126 were well described in endothelial cells during development, their pattern of expression during the establishment of the CNS vasculature is still unknown. By analysing the expression of egfl7 and miR126 during mouse retina vascularisation, we observed that while expression of miR126 is detected in all endothelia, egfl7 is initially expressed in all endothelial cells and then is progressively restricted to veins and to their neighbouring capillaries. The recruitment of mural cells around retina arteries coincides with the down-regulation of egfl7 in the arterial endothelial cells, suggesting that this recruitment could be involved in the loss of egfl7 expression in arteries. However, the expression pattern of egfl7 is similar when mural cell recruitment is prevented by the injection of a PDGFRβ blocking antibody, suggesting that vessel maturation is not responsible for egfl7 down-regulation in retinal arteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loïc Poissonnier
- CNRS, Institut de Biologie de Lille, UMR8161, Université Lille-Nord de France, Lille, France
| | - Gaëlle Villain
- CNRS, Institut de Biologie de Lille, UMR8161, Université Lille-Nord de France, Lille, France
| | - Fabrice Soncin
- CNRS, Institut de Biologie de Lille, UMR8161, Université Lille-Nord de France, Lille, France
| | - Virginie Mattot
- CNRS, Institut de Biologie de Lille, UMR8161, Université Lille-Nord de France, Lille, France
- * E-mail:
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93
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Han HW, Chou CM, Chu CY, Cheng CH, Yang CH, Hung CC, Hwang PP, Lee SJ, Liao YF, Huang CJ. The Nogo-C2/Nogo receptor complex regulates the morphogenesis of zebrafish lateral line primordium through modulating the expression of dkk1b, a Wnt signal inhibitor. PLoS One 2014; 9:e86345. [PMID: 24466042 PMCID: PMC3897714 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0086345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2013] [Accepted: 12/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The fish lateral line (LL) is a mechanosensory system closely related to the hearing system of higher vertebrates, and it is composed of several neuromasts located on the surface of the fish. These neuromasts can detect changes in external water flow, to assist fish in maintaining a stationary position in a stream. In the present study, we identified a novel function of Nogo/Nogo receptor signaling in the formation of zebrafish neuromasts. Nogo signaling in zebrafish, like that in mammals, involves three ligands and four receptors, as well as three co-receptors (TROY, p75, and LINGO-1). We first demonstrated that Nogo-C2, NgRH1a, p75, and TROY are able to form a Nogo-C2 complex, and that disintegration of this complex causes defective neuromast formation in zebrafish. Time-lapse recording of the CldnB::lynEGFP transgenic line revealed that functional obstruction of the Nogo-C2 complex causes disordered morphogenesis, and reduces rosette formation in the posterior LL (PLL) primordium during migration. Consistent with these findings, hair-cell progenitors were lost from the PLL primordium in p75, TROY, and Nogo-C2/NgRH1a morphants. Notably, the expression levels of pea3, a downstream marker of Fgf signaling, and dkk1b, a Wnt signaling inhibitor, were both decreased in p75, TROY, and Nogo-C2/NgRH1a morphants; moreover, dkk1b mRNA injection could rescue the defects in neuromast formation resulting from knockdown of p75 or TROY. We thus suggest that a novel Nogo-C2 complex, consisting of Nogo-C2, NgRH1a, p75, and TROY, regulates Fgf signaling and dkk1b expression, thereby ensuring stable organization of the PLL primordium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao-Wei Han
- Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Ming Chou
- Department of Biochemistry, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Ying Chu
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Hsiung Cheng
- Department of Biochemistry, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | | | - Chin-Chun Hung
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Pung-Pung Hwang
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shyh-Jye Lee
- Institute of Zoology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Feng Liao
- Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (CJH); (YFL)
| | - Chang-Jen Huang
- Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- * E-mail: (CJH); (YFL)
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94
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Gene-environment interactions in severe intraventricular hemorrhage of preterm neonates. Pediatr Res 2014; 75:241-50. [PMID: 24192699 PMCID: PMC3946468 DOI: 10.1038/pr.2013.195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2013] [Accepted: 08/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) of the preterm neonate is a complex developmental disorder, with contributions from both the environment and the genome. IVH, or hemorrhage into the germinal matrix of the developing brain with secondary periventricular infarction, occurs in that critical period of time before the 32nd to 33rd wk postconception and has been attributed to changes in cerebral blood flow to the immature germinal matrix microvasculature. Emerging data suggest that genes subserving coagulation, inflammatory, and vascular pathways and their interactions with environmental triggers may influence both the incidence and severity of cerebral injury and are the subject of this review. Polymorphisms in the Factor V Leiden gene are associated with the atypical timing of IVH, suggesting an as yet unknown environmental trigger. The methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) variants render neonates more vulnerable to cerebral injury in the presence of perinatal hypoxia. The present study demonstrates that the MTHFR 677C>T polymorphism and low 5-min Apgar score additively increase the risk of IVH. Finally, review of published preclinical data suggests the stressors of delivery result in hemorrhage in the presence of mutations in collagen 4A1, a major structural protein of the developing cerebral vasculature. Maternal genetics and fetal environment may also play a role.
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95
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Obermeier B, Daneman R, Ransohoff RM. Development, maintenance and disruption of the blood-brain barrier. Nat Med 2013; 19:1584-96. [PMID: 24309662 DOI: 10.1038/nm.3407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1573] [Impact Index Per Article: 143.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Accepted: 10/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The interface between the blood circulation and the neural tissue features unique characteristics that are encompassed by the term 'blood-brain barrier' (BBB). The main functions of this barrier, namely maintenance of brain homeostasis, regulation of influx and efflux transport, and protection from harm, are determined by its specialized multicellular structure. Every constituent cell type makes an indispensable contribution to the BBB's integrity. But if one member of the BBB fails, and as a result the barrier breaks down, there can be dramatic consequences and neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration can occur. In this Review, we highlight recently gained mechanistic insights into the development and maintenance of the BBB. We then discuss how BBB disruption can cause or contribute to neurological disease. Finally, we examine how this knowledge can be used to explore new possibilities for BBB repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgit Obermeier
- Neuroinflammation Research Center, Department of Neuroscience, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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96
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Fleming A, Diekmann H, Goldsmith P. Functional characterisation of the maturation of the blood-brain barrier in larval zebrafish. PLoS One 2013; 8:e77548. [PMID: 24147021 PMCID: PMC3797749 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0077548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2013] [Accepted: 09/05/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Zebrafish are becoming increasingly popular as an organism in which to model human disease and to study the effects of small molecules on complex physiological and pathological processes. Since larvae are no more than a few millimetres in length, and can live in volumes as small as 100 microliters, they are particularly amenable to high-throughput and high content compound screening in 96 well plate format. There is a growing literature providing evidence that many compounds show similar pharmacological effects in zebrafish as they do in mammals, and in particular humans. However, a major question regarding their utility for small molecule screening for neurological conditions is whether a molecule will reach its target site within the central nervous system. Studies have shown that Claudin-5 and ZO-1, tight-junction proteins which are essential for blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity in mammals, can be detected in some cerebral vessels in zebrafish from 3 days post-fertilisation (d.p.f.) onwards and this timing coincides with the retention of dyes, immunoreactive tracers and fluorescent markers within some but not all cerebral vessels. Whilst these findings demonstrate that features of a BBB are first present at 3 d.p.f., it is not clear how quickly the zebrafish BBB matures or how closely the barrier resembles that of mammals. Here, we have combined anatomical analysis by transmission electron microscopy, functional investigation using fluorescent markers and compound uptake using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry to demonstrate that maturation of the zebrafish BBB occurs between 3 d.p.f. and 10 d.p.f. and that this barrier shares both structural and functional similarities with that of mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angeleen Fleming
- DanioLabs Ltd., Cambridge Research Park, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Heike Diekmann
- DanioLabs Ltd., Cambridge Research Park, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Goldsmith
- DanioLabs Ltd., Cambridge Research Park, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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97
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Siegenthaler JA, Sohet F, Daneman R. 'Sealing off the CNS': cellular and molecular regulation of blood-brain barriergenesis. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2013; 23:1057-64. [PMID: 23867075 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2013.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2013] [Accepted: 06/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
From their initial ingression into the neural tube to the established, adult vascular plexus, blood vessels within the CNS are truly unique. Covered by a virtually continuous layer of perivascular cells and astrocytic endfeet and connected by specialized cell-cell junctional contacts, mature CNS blood vessels simultaneously provide nutritive blood flow and protect the neural milieu from potentially disruptive or harmful molecules and cells flowing through the vessel lumen. In this review we will discuss how the CNS vasculature acquires blood-brain barrier (BBB) properties with a specific focus on recent work identifying the cell types and molecular pathways that orchestrate barriergenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Siegenthaler
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Denver, Aurora, CO 80045, United States.
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98
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Iyer A, Prabowo A, Anink J, Spliet WGM, van Rijen PC, Aronica E. Cell injury and premature neurodegeneration in focal malformations of cortical development. Brain Pathol 2013; 24:1-17. [PMID: 23586324 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.12060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2013] [Accepted: 03/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Several lines of evidence suggest that cell injury may occur in malformations of cortical development associated with epilepsy. Moreover, recent studies support the link between neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative mechanisms. We evaluated a series of focal cortical dysplasia (FCD, n=26; type I and II) and tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC, n=6) cases. Sections were processed for terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated 2'-deoxyuridine 5'-triphosphate nick-end labeling (TUNEL) labeling and immunohistochemistry using markers for the evaluation of apoptosis signaling pathways and neurodegeneration-related proteins/pathways. In both FCD II and TSC specimens, we observed significant increases in both TUNEL-positive and caspase-3-positive cells compared with controls and FCD I. Expression of β-amyloid precursor protein was observed in neuronal soma and processes in FCD II and TSC. In these specimens, we also observed an abnormal expression of death receptor-6. Immunoreactivity for phosphorylated tau was only found in older patients with FCD II and TSC. In these cases, prominent nuclear/cytoplasmic p62 immunoreactivity was detected in both dysmorphic neurons and balloon/giant cells. Our data provide evidence of complex, but similar, mechanisms of cell injury in focal malformations of cortical development associated with mammalian target of rapamycin pathway hyperactivation, with prominent induction of apoptosis-signaling pathways and premature activation of mechanisms of neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anand Iyer
- Department of (Neuro)Pathology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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99
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Iyer A, van Scheppingen J, Anink J, Milenkovic I, Kovács GG, Aronica E. Developmental patterns of DR6 in normal human hippocampus and in Down syndrome. J Neurodev Disord 2013; 5:10. [PMID: 23618225 PMCID: PMC3666921 DOI: 10.1186/1866-1955-5-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2012] [Accepted: 04/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Death receptor 6 (DR6) is highly expressed in the human brain: it has been shown to induce axon pruning and neuron death via distinct caspases and to mediate axonal degeneration through binding to N-terminal β amyloid precursor protein (N-APP). METHODS We investigated the expression of DR6 during prenatal and postnatal development in human hippocampus and temporal cortex by immunocytochemistry and Western blot analysis (118 normal human brain specimens; 9 to 41 gestational weeks; 1 day to 7 months postnatally; 3 to 91 years). To investigate the role of N-APP/DR6/caspase 6 pathway in the development of hippocampal Alzheimer's disease (AD)-associated pathology, we examined DR6 immunoreactivity (IR) in the developing hippocampus from patients with Down syndrome (DS; 48 brain specimens; 14 to 41 gestational weeks; 7 days to 8 months postnatally; 15 to 64 years) and in adults with DS and AD. RESULTS DR6 was highly expressed in human adult hippocampus and temporal cortex: we observed consistent similar temporal and spatial expression in both control and DS brain. Western blot analysis of total homogenates of temporal cortex and hippocampus showed developmental regulation of DR6. In the hippocampus, DR6 IR was first apparent in the stratum lacunosum-moleculare at 16 weeks of gestation, followed by stratum oriens, radiatum, pyramidale (CA1 to CA4) and molecular layer of the dentate gyrus between 21 and 23 gestational weeks, reaching a pattern similar to adult hippocampus around birth. Increased DR6 expression in dystrophic neurites was detected focally in a 15-year-old DS patient. Abnormal DR6 expression pattern, with increased expression within dystrophic neurites in and around amyloid plaques was observed in adult DS patients with widespread AD-associated neurodegeneration and was similar to the pattern observed in AD hippocampus. Double-labeling experiments demonstrated the colocalization, in dystrophic neurites, of DR6 with APP. We also observed colocalization with hyper-phosphorylated Tau and with caspase 6 (increased in hippocampus with AD pathology) in plaque-associated dystrophic neurites and within the white matter. CONCLUSIONS These findings demonstrate a developmental regulation of DR6 in human hippocampus and suggest an abnormal activation of the N-APP/DR6/caspase 6 pathway, which can contribute to initiation or progression of hippocampal AD-associated pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anand Iyer
- Department of (Neuro)Pathology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, AZ 1105, The Netherlands
| | - Jackelien van Scheppingen
- Department of (Neuro)Pathology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, AZ 1105, The Netherlands
| | - Jasper Anink
- Department of (Neuro)Pathology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, AZ 1105, The Netherlands
| | - Ivan Milenkovic
- Institute of Neurology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gabor G Kovács
- Institute of Neurology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Eleonora Aronica
- Department of (Neuro)Pathology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, AZ 1105, The Netherlands.,SEIN - Stichting Epilepsie Instellingen Nederland, Heemstede, The Netherlands.,Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Center for Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Ruhrberg C, Bautch VL. Neurovascular development and links to disease. Cell Mol Life Sci 2013; 70:1675-84. [PMID: 23475065 PMCID: PMC3632722 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-013-1277-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2013] [Revised: 01/28/2013] [Accepted: 01/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The developing central nervous system (CNS) is vascularized via ingression of blood vessels from the outside as the neural tissue expands. This angiogenic process occurs without perturbing CNS architecture due to exquisite cross-talk between the neural compartment and invading blood vessels. Subsequently, this intimate relationship also promotes the formation of the neurovascular unit that underlies the blood-brain barrier and regulates blood flow to match brain activity. This review provides a historical perspective on research into CNS blood vessel growth and patterning, discusses current models used to study CNS angiogenesis, and provides an overview of the cellular and molecular mechanisms that promote blood vessel growth and maturation. Finally, we highlight the significance of these mechanisms for two different types of neurovascular CNS disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiana Ruhrberg
- UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, 11-43 Bath Street, London, EC1V 9EL, UK.
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