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Lethal hydroxyl radical accumulation by a lactococcal bacteriocin, lacticin Q. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57:3897-902. [PMID: 23733459 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00638-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The antimicrobial mechanism of a lactococcal bacteriocin, lacticin Q, can be described by the toroidal pore model without any receptor. However, lacticin Q showed different degrees of activity (selective antimicrobial activity) against Gram-positive bacteria even among related species. The ability of lacticin Q to induce pore formation in liposomes composed of lipids from different indicator strains indicated that its selective antimicrobial activity could not be attributed only to membrane lipid composition. We investigated the accumulation of deleterious hydroxyl radicals after exposure to lacticin Q as a contributing factor to cell death in the indicator strains. When lacticin Q of the same concentration as the MIC or minimum bactericidal concentration was added to the indicator cultures, high levels of hydroxyl radical accumulation were detected. Treatment with hydroxyl radical scavengers, thiourea and 2,2'-bipyridyl, decreased the levels of hydroxyl radical accumulation and recovered cell viability. These results suggest that, with or without pore formation, the final antimicrobial mechanism of lacticin Q is the accumulation of hydroxyl radicals, which varies by strain, resulting in the selective antimicrobial activity of lacticin Q.
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52
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Zohri M, Shafiee Alavidjeh M, Mirdamadi SS, Behmadi H, Hossaini Nasr SM, Eshghi Gonbaki S, Shafiee Ardestani M, Jabbari Arabzadeh A. Nisin-Loaded Chitosan/Alginate Nanoparticles: A Hopeful Hybrid Biopreservative. J Food Saf 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/jfs.12021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Zohri
- Department of Food Science and Technology; Science and Research Branch; Islamic Azad University; Tehran Iran
| | | | - Seyed Saeed Mirdamadi
- Iranian Research Organization Science & Technology; Biotechnology Department; Tehran Iran
| | - Homa Behmadi
- Department of Food Engineering and Post-Harvest Technology Research; Agricultural Engineering Institute; Karaj Iran
| | | | - Sima Eshghi Gonbaki
- Department of Engineering, Science and Research Branch; Islamic Azad University; Tehran Iran
| | - Mehdi Shafiee Ardestani
- Research and Development and Hepatitis B Department; Research and Production Complex; Pasteur Institute of Iran; Tehran Iran
| | - Ali Jabbari Arabzadeh
- Medicinal Chemistry; Faculty of Pharmacy; Tehran University of Medical Sciences; Tehran Iran
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53
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Dosler S, Gerceker AA. In vitro activities of antimicrobial cationic peptides; melittin and nisin, alone or in combination with antibiotics against Gram-positive bacteria. J Chemother 2012; 24:137-43. [PMID: 22759757 DOI: 10.1179/1973947812y.0000000007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
The In vitro activities of two antimicrobial cationic peptides, melittin and nisin alone and in combination with frequently used antibiotics (daptomycin, vancomycin, linezolid, ampicillin, and erythromycin), were assessed against clinical isolates of methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-resistant S. aureus and Enterococcus faecalis. Using the broth microdilution method, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) ranges of melittin and nisin against all strains were 2-8 μg/ml and 2-32 μg/ml respectively. In combination studies performed with the microdilution checkerboard method using a fractional inhibitory concentration index of ≤ 0.5 as borderline, synergistic interactions occurred more frequently with nisin-ampicillin combination against MSSA and nisin-daptomycin combination against E. faecalis strains. The results of the time-killing curve analysis demonstrated that the concentration dependent rapid bactericidal activity of nisin, and that synergism or early synergism was detected in most strains when nisin or melittin was used in combination with antibiotics even at concentrations of 0.5 × MIC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sibel Dosler
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Istanbul University, Turkey.
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54
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van Staden AD, Brand AM, Dicks LMT. Nisin F-loaded brushite bone cement prevented the growth of Staphylococcus aureus in vivo. J Appl Microbiol 2012; 112:831-40. [PMID: 22268790 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2012.05241.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
AIMS To determine if nisin F-loaded self-setting brushite cement could control the growth of Staphylococcus aureus in vivo. METHODS AND RESULTS Brushite cement was prepared by mixing equimolar concentrations of β-tricalcium phosphate and monocalcium phosphate monohydrate. Nisin F was added at 5·0, 2·5 and 1·0% (w/w) and the cement moulded into cylinders. In vitro antibacterial activity was determined using a delayed agar diffusion assay. Release of nisin F from the cement was determined using BCA protein assays. Based on scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis, nisin F did not cause significant changes in cement structure or chemistry. Cement containing 5·0% (w/w) nisin F yielded the most promising in vitro results. Nisin F-loaded cement was implanted into a subcutaneous pocket on the back of mice and then infected with S. aureus Xen 36. Infection was monitored for 7 days, using an in vivo imaging system. Nisin F prevented S. aureus infection for 7 days and no viable cells were isolated from the implants. CONCLUSIONS Nisin F-loaded brushite cement successfully prevented in vivo growth of S. aureus. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Nisin F incorporated into bone cement may be used to control S. aureus infection in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D van Staden
- Department of Microbiology, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa
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55
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Jia Z, O'Mara M, Zuegg J, Cooper M, Mark A. The effect of environment on the recognition and binding of vancomycin to native and resistant forms of lipid II. Biophys J 2011; 101:2684-92. [PMID: 22261057 PMCID: PMC3297793 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2011.10.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2011] [Revised: 09/10/2011] [Accepted: 10/31/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular dynamics simulations and free energy calculations have been used to examine in detail the mechanism by which a receptor molecule (the glycopeptide antibiotic vancomycin) recognizes and binds to a target molecule (lipid II) embedded within a membrane environment. The simulations show that the direct interaction of vancomycin with lipid II, as opposed to initial binding to the membrane, leads most readily to the formation of a stable complex. The recognition of lipid II by vancomycin occurred via the N-terminal amine group of vancomycin and the C-terminal carboxyl group of lipid II. Despite lying at the membrane-water interface, the interaction of vancomycin with lipid II was found to be essentially identical to that of soluble tripeptide analogs of lipid II (Ac-d-Ala-d-Ala; root mean-square deviation 0.11 nm). Free energy calculations also suggest that the relative binding affinity of vancomycin for native, resistant, and synthetic forms of membrane-bound lipid II was unaffected by the membrane environment. The effect of the dimerization of vancomycin on the binding of lipid II, the position of lipid II within a biological membrane, and the effect of the isoamylene tail of lipid II on membrane fluidity have also been examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- ZhiGuang Jia
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Megan L. O'Mara
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Johannes Zuegg
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Matthew A. Cooper
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Alan E. Mark
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
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56
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Olrichs NK, Aarsman MEG, Verheul J, Arnusch CJ, Martin NI, Hervé M, Vollmer W, de Kruijff B, Breukink E, den Blaauwen T. A novel in vivo cell-wall labeling approach sheds new light on peptidoglycan synthesis in Escherichia coli. Chembiochem 2011; 12:1124-33. [PMID: 21472954 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201000552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Peptidoglycan synthesis and turnover in relation to cell growth and division has been studied by using a new labeling method. This method involves the incorporation of fluorescently labeled peptidoglycan precursors into the cell wall by means of the cell-wall recycling pathway. We show that Escherichia coli is able to import exogenous added murein tripeptide labeled with N-7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazol-4-yl (AeK-NBD) into the cytoplasm where it enters the peptidoglycan biosynthesis route, resulting in fluorescent labels specifically located in the cell wall. When wild-type cells were grown in the presence of the fluorescent peptide, peptidoglycan was uniformly labeled in cells undergoing elongation. Cells in the process of division displayed a lack of labeled peptidoglycan at mid-cell. Analysis of labeling patterns in cell division mutants showed that the occurrence of unlabeled peptidoglycan is dependent on the presence of FtsZ, but independent of FtsQ and FtsI. Accumulation of fluorescence at the division sites of a triple amidase mutant (ΔamiABC) revealed that AeK-NBD is incorporated into septal peptidoglycan. AmiC was shown to be involved in the rapid removal of labeled peptidoglycan side chains at division sites in wild-type cells. Because septal localization of AmiC is dependent on FtsQ and FtsI, this points to the presence of another peptidoglycan hydrolase activity directly dependent on FtsZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick K Olrichs
- Department of Chemical Biology and Organic Chemistry, University of Utrecht, The Netherlands
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57
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In vitro studies indicate a high resistance potential for the lantibiotic nisin in Staphylococcus aureus and define a genetic basis for nisin resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011; 55:2362-8. [PMID: 21300840 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01077-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Lantibiotics such as nisin (NIS) are peptide antibiotics that may have a role in the chemotherapy of bacterial infections. A perceived benefit of lantibiotics for clinical use is their low propensity to select resistance, although detailed resistance studies with relevant bacterial pathogens are lacking. Here we examined the development of resistance to NIS in Staphylococcus aureus, establishing that mutants, including small-colony variants, exhibiting substantial (4- to 32-fold) reductions in NIS susceptibility could be selected readily. Comparative genome sequencing of a single NISr mutant exhibiting a 32-fold increase in NIS MIC revealed the presence of only two mutations, leading to the substitutions V229G in the purine operon repressor, PurR, and A208E in an uncharacterized protein encoded by SAOUHSC_02955. Independently selected NISr mutants also harbored mutations in the genes encoding these products. Reintroduction of these mutations into the S. aureus chromosome alone and in combination revealed that SAOUHSC_02955(A208E) made the primary contribution to the resistance phenotype, conferring up to a 16-fold decrease in NIS susceptibility. Bioinformatic analyses suggested that this gene encodes a sensor histidine kinase, leading us to designate it "nisin susceptibility-associated sensor (nsaS)." Doubling-time determinations and mixed-culture competition assays between NISr and NISs strains indicated that NIS resistance had little impact on bacterial fitness, and resistance was stable in the absence of selection. The apparent ease with which S. aureus can develop and maintain NIS resistance in vitro suggests that resistance to NIS and other lantibiotics with similar modes of action would arise in the clinic if these agents are employed as chemotherapeutic drugs.
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58
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Pinto MS, de Carvalho AF, Pires ACDS, Campos Souza AA, Fonseca da Silva PH, Sobral D, de Paula JCJ, de Lima Santos A. The effects of nisin on Staphylococcus aureus count and the physicochemical properties of Traditional Minas Serro cheese. Int Dairy J 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2010.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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59
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Neeti D, Noel C, Dayna E, Shi-En L, Leif S. Optimization of the Production of the Lantibiotic Mutacin 1140 in Minimal Media. Process Biochem 2010; 45:1187-1191. [PMID: 20711515 DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2010.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Mutacin 1140 is produced by Streptococcus mutans and belongs to the type A lantibiotic family. Experiments were done to optimize production of mutacin 1140 in minimal media enabling a more cost efficient downstream purification method. The development of a small volume fermentation method enabled a rapid screen of several variables in a standard shaking incubator. This method provided a fast approach for determining components that promote mutacin 1140 production in minimal media broth. Lactose was determined to be the optimal carbon source for mutacin 1140 production. High concentrations of CaCl(2) (0.3% w/v) and MgSO(4) (0.77% w/v) promoted an increase in mutacin 1140 production, while ZnCl(2) and FeCl(3) appeared to impair production. Optimization of mutacin 1140 production in minimal media resulted in more than a 100-fold increase in production compared to the base medium used to begin our optimizations. The yield has been estimated by RP-HPLC to be ~10 mg/L.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dahal Neeti
- Mississippi State University, Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762
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60
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Loss of IrpT Function in Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis N8 Results in Increased Nisin Resistance. Curr Microbiol 2010; 61:329-34. [DOI: 10.1007/s00284-010-9615-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2009] [Accepted: 02/12/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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61
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Novel mechanism for nisin resistance via proteolytic degradation of nisin by the nisin resistance protein NSR. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53:1964-73. [PMID: 19273681 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01382-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Nisin is a 34-residue antibacterial peptide produced by Lactococcus lactis that is active against a wide range of gram-positive bacteria. In non-nisin-producing L. lactis, nisin resistance could be conferred by a specific nisin resistance gene (nsr), which encodes a 35-kDa nisin resistance protein (NSR). However, the mechanism underlying NSR-mediated nisin resistance is poorly understood. Here we demonstrated that the protein without the predicted N-terminal signal peptide sequence, i.e., NSRSD, could proteolytically inactivate nisin in vitro by removing six amino acids from the carboxyl "tail" of nisin. The truncated nisin (nisin(1-28)) displayed a markedly reduced affinity for the cell membrane and showed significantly diminished pore-forming potency in the membrane. A 100-fold reduction of bactericidal activity was detected for nisin(1-28) in comparison to that for the intact nisin. In vivo analysis indicated that NSR localized on the cell membrane and endowed host strains with nisin resistance by degrading nisin as NSRSD did in vitro, whereas NSRSD failed to confer resistance upon the host strain. In conclusion, we showed that NSR is a nisin-degrading protease. This NSR-mediated proteolytic cleavage represents a novel mechanism for nisin resistance in non-nisin-producing L. lactis.
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62
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Wilson-Stanford S, Kalli A, Håkansson K, Kastrantas J, Orugunty RS, Smith L. Oxidation of lanthionines renders the lantibiotic nisin inactive. Appl Environ Microbiol 2009; 75:1381-7. [PMID: 19114522 PMCID: PMC2648158 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01864-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2008] [Accepted: 12/22/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The peptide antibiotic nisin A belongs to the group of antibiotics called lantibiotics. They are classified as lantibiotics because they contain the structural group lanthionine. Lanthionines are composed of a single sulfur atom that is linked to the beta-carbons of two alanine moieties. These sulfur atoms are vulnerable to environmental oxidation. A mild oxidation reaction was performed on nisin A to determine the relative effects it would have on bioactivity. High-mass-accuracy Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry data revealed the addition of seven, eight, and nine oxygens. These additions correspond to the five lanthionines, two methionines, and two histidines that would be susceptible to oxidation. Subsequent bioassays revealed that the oxidized form of nisin A had a complete loss of bactericidal activity. In a competition study, the oxidized nisin did not appear to have an antagonistic affect on the bioactivity of nisin A, since the addition of an equal molar concentration of the oxidized variant did not have an influence on the bactericidal activity of the native antibiotic. Electron microscopy data revealed that the oxidized forms were still capable of assembling into large circular complexes, demonstrating that oxidation does not disrupt the lateral assembly mechanism of the antibiotic. Affinity thin-layer chromatography and fluorescence microscopy experiments suggested that the loss of activity is due to the inability of the oxidized form of nisin to bind to the cell wall precursor lipid II. Given the loss of bioactivity following oxidation, oxidation should be an important factor to consider in future production, purification, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawanda Wilson-Stanford
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762, USA
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63
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Barreteau H, Magnet S, El Ghachi M, Touzé T, Arthur M, Mengin-Lecreulx D, Blanot D. Quantitative high-performance liquid chromatography analysis of the pool levels of undecaprenyl phosphate and its derivatives in bacterial membranes. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2008; 877:213-20. [PMID: 19110475 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2008.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2008] [Revised: 12/03/2008] [Accepted: 12/04/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Undecaprenyl phosphate is the essential lipid involved in the transport of hydrophilic motifs across the bacterial membranes during the synthesis of cell wall polymers such as peptidoglycan. A HPLC procedure was developed for the quantification of undecaprenyl phosphate and its two derivatives, undecaprenyl pyrophosphate and undecaprenol. During the exponential growth phase, the pools of undecaprenyl phosphate and undecaprenyl pyrophosphate were ca. 75 and 270 nmol/g of cell dry weight, respectively, in Escherichia coli, and ca. 50 and 150 nmol/g, respectively, in Staphylococcus aureus. Undecaprenol was detected in S. aureus (70 nmol/g), but not in E. coli (<1 nmol/g).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hélène Barreteau
- Université Paris-Sud, UMR 8619, Institut de Biochimie et Biophysique Moléculaire et Cellulaire, 91405 Orsay Cedex, France.
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64
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Smith L, Hillman J. Therapeutic potential of type A (I) lantibiotics, a group of cationic peptide antibiotics. Curr Opin Microbiol 2008; 11:401-8. [PMID: 18848642 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2008.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2008] [Revised: 09/14/2008] [Accepted: 09/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Type A (I) lantibiotics are cationic antimicrobial peptides that have a potential usefulness in treating infectious diseases. They are known to have a potent and broad spectrum of activity, an insignificant cytotoxicity, and demonstrated efficacy in animal infection models, suggesting therapeutic potential. In this review, topics pertaining to their basic structure, mode of bactericidal activity, pharmacology, and methods of manufacture are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leif Smith
- Mississippi State University, Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA.
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Abstract
The lantibiotic nisin has previously been reported to inhibit the outgrowth of spores from several Bacillus species. However, the mode of action of nisin responsible for outgrowth inhibition is poorly understood. By using B. anthracis Sterne 7702 as a model, nisin acted against spores with a 50% inhibitory concentration (IC(50)) and an IC(90) of 0.57 microM and 0.90 microM, respectively. Viable B. anthracis organisms were not recoverable from cultures containing concentrations of nisin greater than the IC(90). These studies demonstrated that spores lose heat resistance and become hydrated in the presence of nisin, thereby ruling out a possible mechanism of inhibition in which nisin acts to block germination initiation. Rather, germination initiation is requisite for the action of nisin. This study also revealed that nisin rapidly and irreversibly inhibits growth by preventing the establishment of oxidative metabolism and the membrane potential in germinating spores. On the other hand, nisin had no detectable effects on the typical changes associated with the dissolution of the outer spore structures (e.g., the spore coats, cortex, and exosporium). Thus, the action of nisin results in the uncoupling of two critical sequences of events necessary for the outgrowth of spores: the establishment of metabolism and the shedding of the external spore structures.
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66
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The ABC-type multidrug resistance transporter LmrCD is responsible for an extrusion-based mechanism of bile acid resistance in Lactococcus lactis. J Bacteriol 2008; 190:7357-66. [PMID: 18790870 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00485-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Upon prolonged exposure to cholate and other toxic compounds, Lactococcus lactis develops a multidrug resistance phenotype that has been attributed to an elevated expression of the heterodimeric ABC-type multidrug transporter LmrCD. To investigate the molecular basis of bile acid resistance in L. lactis and to evaluate the contribution of efflux-based mechanisms in this process, the drug-sensitive L. lactis NZ9000 DeltalmrCD strain was challenged with cholate. A resistant strain was obtained that, compared to the parental strain, showed (i) significantly improved resistance toward several bile acids but not to drugs, (ii) morphological changes, and (iii) an altered susceptibility to antimicrobial peptides. Transcriptome and transport analyses suggest that the acquired resistance is unrelated to elevated transport activity but, instead, results from a multitude of stress responses, changes to the cell envelope, and metabolic changes. In contrast, wild-type cells induce the expression of lmrCD upon exposure to cholate, whereupon the cholate is actively extruded from the cells. Together, these data suggest a central role for an efflux-based mechanism in bile acid resistance and implicate LmrCD as the main system responsible in L. lactis.
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67
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de Kruijff B, van Dam V, Breukink E. Lipid II: a central component in bacterial cell wall synthesis and a target for antibiotics. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2008; 79:117-21. [PMID: 19008088 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2008.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The bacterial cell wall is mainly composed of peptidoglycan, which is a three-dimensional network of long aminosugar strands located on the exterior of the cytoplasmic membrane. These strands consist of alternating MurNAc and GlcNAc units and are interlinked to each other via peptide moieties that are attached to the MurNAc residues. Peptidoglycan subunits are assembled on the cytoplasmic side of the bacterial membrane on a polyisoprenoid anchor and one of the key components in the synthesis of peptidoglycan is Lipid II. Being essential for bacterial cell survival, it forms an attractive target for antibacterial compounds such as vancomycin and several lantibiotics. Lipid II consists of one GlcNAc-MurNAc-pentapeptide subunit linked to a polyiosoprenoid anchor 11 subunits long via a pyrophosphate linker. This review focuses on this special molecule and addresses three questions. First, why are special lipid carriers as polyprenols used in the assembly of peptidoglycan? Secondly, how is Lipid II translocated across the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane? And finally, how is Lipid II used as a receptor for lantibiotics to kill bacteria?
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben de Kruijff
- Chemical Biology and Organic Chemistry, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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68
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Kramer NE, Hasper HE, van den Bogaard PTC, Morath S, de Kruijff B, Hartung T, Smid EJ, Breukink E, Kok J, Kuipers OP. Increased D-alanylation of lipoteichoic acid and a thickened septum are main determinants in the nisin resistance mechanism of Lactococcus lactis. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2008; 154:1755-1762. [PMID: 18524930 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.2007/015412-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Nisin is a post-translationally modified antimicrobial peptide produced by Lactococcus lactis which binds to lipid II in the membrane to form pores and inhibit cell-wall synthesis. A nisin-resistant (Nis(R)) strain of L. lactis, which is able to grow at a 75-fold higher nisin concentration than its parent strain, was investigated with respect to changes in the cell wall. Direct binding studies demonstrated that less nisin was able to bind to lipid II in the membranes of L. lactis Nis(R) than in the parent strain. In contrast to vancomycin binding, which showed ring-like binding, nisin was observed to bind in patches close to cell-division sites in both the wild-type and the Nis(R) strains. Comparison of modifications in lipoteichoic acid of the L. lactis strains revealed an increase in d-alanyl esters and galactose as substituents in L. lactis Nis(R), resulting in a less negatively charged cell wall. Moreover, the cell wall displays significantly increased thickness at the septum. These results indicate that shielding the membrane and thus the lipid II molecule, thereby decreasing abduction of lipid II and subsequent pore-formation, is a major defence mechanism of L. lactis against nisin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi E Kramer
- Department of Biochemistry of Membranes, Center for Biomembranes and Lipid Enzymology, Institute of Biomembranes, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Molecular Genetics Group, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, PO Box 14, 9750 AA Haren, The Netherlands
| | - Hester E Hasper
- Department of Biochemistry of Membranes, Center for Biomembranes and Lipid Enzymology, Institute of Biomembranes, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Patrick T C van den Bogaard
- Eukaryotic Microbiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, PO Box 14, 9750 AA Haren, The Netherlands
| | - Siegfried Morath
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, IHCP, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods, 21020 Ispra, Italy
| | - Ben de Kruijff
- Department of Biochemistry of Membranes, Center for Biomembranes and Lipid Enzymology, Institute of Biomembranes, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas Hartung
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, IHCP, European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods, 21020 Ispra, Italy
| | - Eddy J Smid
- NIZO Food Research, Flavour and Natural Ingredients Section, PO Box 20, 6710 BA Ede, The Netherlands
| | - Eefjan Breukink
- Department of Biochemistry of Membranes, Center for Biomembranes and Lipid Enzymology, Institute of Biomembranes, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Kok
- Molecular Genetics Group, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, PO Box 14, 9750 AA Haren, The Netherlands
| | - Oscar P Kuipers
- Molecular Genetics Group, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, PO Box 14, 9750 AA Haren, The Netherlands
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Fernández L, Delgado S, Herrero H, Maldonado A, Rodríguez JM. The bacteriocin nisin, an effective agent for the treatment of staphylococcal mastitis during lactation. J Hum Lact 2008; 24:311-6. [PMID: 18689718 DOI: 10.1177/0890334408317435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Eight women with clinical signs of staphylococcal mastitis were randomly divided in 2 groups. A solution of the bacteriocin nisin (6 microg/mL) was applied to the nipple and mammary areola of those assigned to the nisin group for 2 weeks, and a similar preparation devoid of nisin was applied to the control group. On day 0, staphylococcal counts in breast milk of the nisin and control groups were similar (5.04+/-0.19 and 4.88+/-0.21 log10 CFU/mL, respectively). However, on day 14, the mean in the nisin group (3.22+/-0.43 log10 CFU/mL) was statistically lower than that of the control group (5.01+/-0.21 log10 CFU/mL). No clinical signs of mastitis were observed among the women of the nisin group on day 14, whereas they persisted throughout the study in the women of the control group. In conclusion, nisin seems to be an efficient alternative to antibiotics for the treatment of staphylococcal mastitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonides Fernández
- Departamento de Nutrición, Bromatología y Tecnología de los Alimentos (NBTA), Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), Spain
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70
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Specific interaction of the unmodified bacteriocin Lactococcin 972 with the cell wall precursor lipid II. Appl Environ Microbiol 2008; 74:4666-70. [PMID: 18539790 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00092-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Lactococcin 972 (Lcn972) is a nonlantibiotic bacteriocin that inhibits septum biosynthesis in Lactococcus lactis rather than forming pores in the cytoplasmic membrane. In this study, a deeper analysis of the molecular basis of the mode of action of Lcn972 was performed. Of several lipid cell wall precursors, only lipid II antagonized Lcn972 inhibitory activity in vivo. Likewise, Lcn972 only coprecipitated with lipid II micelles. This bacteriocin inhibited the in vitro polymerization of lipid II by the recombinant S. aureus PBP2 and the addition to lipid II of the first glycine catalyzed by FemX. These experiments demonstrate that Lcn972 specifically interacts with lipid II, the substrate of both enzymes. In the presence of Lcn972, nisin pore formation was partially hindered in whole cells. However, binding of Lcn972 to lipid II could not compete with nisin in lipid II-doped 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC) liposomes, possibly indicating a distinct binding site. The existence of a putative cotarget for Lcn972 activity is discussed in the context of its narrow inhibitory spectrum and the localized action at the division septum. To our knowledge, this is the first unmodified bacteriocin that binds to the cell wall precursor lipid II.
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71
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Abstract
This review is an attempt to bring together and critically evaluate the now-abundant but dispersed data concerning the lipid intermediates of the biosynthesis of bacterial peptidoglycan. Lipid I, lipid II, and their modified forms play a key role not only as the specific link between the intracellular synthesis of the peptidoglycan monomer unit and the extracytoplasmic polymerization reactions but also in the attachment of proteins to the bacterial cell wall and in the mechanisms of action of antibiotics with which they form specific complexes. The survey deals first with their detection, purification, structure, and preparation by chemical and enzymatic methods. The recent important advances in the study of transferases MraY and MurG, responsible for the formation of lipids I and II, are reported. Various modifications undergone by lipids I and II are described, especially those occurring in gram-positive organisms. The following section concerns the cellular location of the lipid intermediates and the translocation of lipid II across the cytoplasmic membrane. The great efforts made since 2000 in the study of the glycosyltransferases catalyzing the glycan chain formation with lipid II or analogues are analyzed in detail. Finally, examples of antibiotics forming complexes with the lipid intermediates are presented.
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72
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Arqués J, Rodríguez E, Nuñez M, Medina M. Antimicrobial Activity of Nisin, Reuterin, and the Lactoperoxidase System on Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus in Cuajada, a Semisolid Dairy Product Manufactured in Spain. J Dairy Sci 2008; 91:70-5. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2007-0133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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73
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Martin NI, Breukink E. Expanding role of lipid II as a target for lantibiotics. Future Microbiol 2007; 2:513-25. [PMID: 17927474 DOI: 10.2217/17460913.2.5.513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipid II is an essential cell-wall precursor required for the growth and replication of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Compounds that use lipid II to selectively target bacterial cells for destruction represent an important class of antibiotics. Clinically, vancomycin is the most important example of an antibiotic that operates in this manner. Despite being considered the 'antibiotic drug of last resort', significant bacterial resistance to vancomycin now manifests itself worldwide. In this paper we review recent progress made in understanding the lipid II-associated antibacterial characteristics of various naturally occurring compounds, with particular focus on the lantibiotic peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel I Martin
- Utrecht University, Department of Medicinal Chemistry & Chemical Biology, 3584 CA Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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74
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Rink R, Wierenga J, Kuipers A, Kluskens LD, Driessen AJM, Kuipers OP, Moll GN. Dissection and modulation of the four distinct activities of nisin by mutagenesis of rings A and B and by C-terminal truncation. Appl Environ Microbiol 2007; 73:5809-16. [PMID: 17660303 PMCID: PMC2074915 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01104-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Nisin A is a pentacyclic antibiotic peptide produced by various Lactococcus lactis strains. Nisin displays four different activities: (i) it autoinduces its own synthesis; (ii) it inhibits the growth of target bacteria by membrane pore formation; (iii) it inhibits bacterial growth by interfering with cell wall synthesis; and, in addition, (iv) it inhibits the outgrowth of spores. Here we investigate the structural requirements and relevance of the N-terminal thioether rings of nisin by randomization of the ring A and B positions. The data demonstrate that: (i) mutation of ring A results in variants with enhanced activity and a modulated spectrum of target cells; (ii) for the cell growth-inhibiting activity of nisin, ring A is rather promiscuous with respect to its amino acid composition, whereas the bulky amino acid residues in ring B abolish antimicrobial activity; (iii) C-terminally truncated nisin A mutants lacking rings D and E retain significant antimicrobial activity but are unable to permeabilize the target membrane; (iv) the dehydroalanine in ring A is not essential for the inhibition of the outgrowth of Bacillus cells; (v) some ring A mutants have significant antimicrobial activities but have decreased autoinducing activities; (vi) the opening of ring B eliminates antimicrobial activity while retaining autoinducing activity; and (vii) some ring A mutants escape the nisin immune system(s) and are toxic to the nisin-producing strain NZ9700. These data demonstrate that the various activities of nisin can be engineered independently and provide a basis for the design and synthesis of tailor-made analogs with desired activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rick Rink
- BiOMaDe Technology Foundation, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
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75
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Inactivation of Gram-negative pathogens in refrigerated milk by reuterin in combination with nisin or the lactoperoxidase system. Eur Food Res Technol 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-007-0695-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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76
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Ganchev DN, Hasper HE, Breukink E, de Kruijff B. Size and orientation of the lipid II headgroup as revealed by AFM imaging. Biochemistry 2006; 45:6195-202. [PMID: 16681392 DOI: 10.1021/bi051913e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the size and orientation of the bacterial Lipid II (L II) headgroup when the L II molecule is present in liquid-crystalline domains of DOPC in a supported DPPC bilayer. Using atomic force microscopy, we detected that L II causes the appearance of a 1.9 nm thick layer, situated over the DOPC headgroup region. With an increased scanning force, this layer can be penetrated by the AFM tip down to the level of the DOPC bilayer. Using different L II precursor molecules, we demonstrated that the detected layer consists of the headgroups of L II and that the MurNAc-pentapeptide unit of the headgroup is responsible for the measured 1.9 nm height of that layer. Monolayer experiments provided information about the in-plane dimensions of the L II headgroup. On the basis of these results and considerations of the molecular dimensions of L II headgroup constituents, we propose a model for the orientation of the L II headgroup in the membrane. In this model, the pentapeptide of the L II headgroup is rather extended and points away from the bilayer surface, which could be important for biological processes, in which L II is involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- D N Ganchev
- Institute of Biomembranes, Department of Biochemistry of Membranes, Faculty of Chemistry, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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77
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Abstract
Lipid II is a membrane-anchored cell-wall precursor that is essential for bacterial cell-wall biosynthesis. The effectiveness of targeting Lipid II as an antibacterial strategy is highlighted by the fact that it is the target for at least four different classes of antibiotic, including the clinically important glycopeptide antibiotic vancomycin. However, the growing problem of bacterial resistance to many current drugs, including vancomycin, has led to increasing interest in the therapeutic potential of other classes of compound that target Lipid II. Here, we review progress in understanding of the antibacterial activities of these compounds, which include lantibiotics, mannopeptimycins and ramoplanin, and consider factors that will be important in exploiting their potential as new treatments for bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eefjan Breukink
- Department of Biochemistry of Membranes, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Utrecht University, The Netherlands.
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78
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Kramer NE, van Hijum SAFT, Knol J, Kok J, Kuipers OP. Transcriptome analysis reveals mechanisms by which Lactococcus lactis acquires nisin resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50:1753-61. [PMID: 16641446 PMCID: PMC1472215 DOI: 10.1128/aac.50.5.1753-1761.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2005] [Revised: 01/18/2006] [Accepted: 02/07/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Nisin, a posttranslationally modified antimicrobial peptide produced by Lactococcus lactis, is widely used as a food preservative. Yet, the mechanisms leading to the development of nisin resistance in bacteria are poorly understood. We used whole-genome DNA microarrays of L. lactis IL1403 to identify the factors underlying acquired nisin resistance mechanisms. The transcriptomes of L. lactis IL1403 and L. lactis IL1403 Nis(r), which reached a 75-fold higher nisin resistance level, were compared. Differential expression was observed in genes encoding proteins that are involved in cell wall biosynthesis, energy metabolism, fatty acid and phospholipid metabolism, regulatory functions, and metal and/or peptide transport and binding. These results were further substantiated by showing that several knockout and overexpression mutants of these genes had strongly altered nisin resistance levels and that some knockout strains could no longer become resistant to the same level of nisin as that of the wild-type strain. The acquired nisin resistance mechanism in L. lactis is complex, involving various different mechanisms. The four major mechanisms are (i) preventing nisin from reaching the cytoplasmic membrane, (ii) reducing the acidity of the extracellular medium, thereby stimulating the binding of nisin to the cell wall, (iii) preventing the insertion of nisin into the membrane, and (iv) possibly transporting nisin across the membrane or extruding nisin out of the membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi E Kramer
- Molecular Genetics Group, Department of Genetics, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, P.O. Box 14, 9750 AA Haren, The Netherlands
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79
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Opinion of the Scientific Panel on food additives, flavourings, processing aids and materials in contact with food (AFC) related to The use of nisin (E 234) as a food additive. EFSA J 2006. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2006.314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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80
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Abstract
Bacteriocins are bacterially produced antimicrobial peptides with narrow or broad host ranges. Many bacteriocins are produced by food-grade lactic acid bacteria, a phenomenon which offers food scientists the possibility of directing or preventing the development of specific bacterial species in food. This can be particularly useful in preservation or food safety applications, but also has implications for the development of desirable flora in fermented food. In this sense, bacteriocins can be used to confer a rudimentary form of innate immunity to foodstuffs, helping processors extend their control over the food flora long after manufacture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul D Cotter
- Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, Microbiology Department, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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81
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Kok J, Buist G, Zomer AL, van Hijum SA, Kuipers OP. Comparative and functional genomics of lactococci. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fmrre.2005.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
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82
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Chatterjee C, Paul M, Xie L, van der Donk WA. Biosynthesis and mode of action of lantibiotics. Chem Rev 2005; 105:633-84. [PMID: 15700960 DOI: 10.1021/cr030105v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 556] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Champak Chatterjee
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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