Traditional uses, fermentation, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Phellinus linteus : A review

Effective isolation of antioxidant Phelligridin LA from the fermentation broth of Inonotus baumii by macroporous resin

Phelligridin LA (PLA) is a natural product with vigorous free radical scavenging activities accumulated in the liquid fermentation of herbal medicinal fungus Inonotus baumii. Aiming to establish an efficient isolation method of PLA from the fermentation broth, we evaluated the adsorption of PLA by macroporous resins. The best resin ADS-17 was screened for six candidates with various physical properties and adsorption behaviors. Studies on the thermodynamics and kinetics of the process revealed that the adsorption reaction could take place spontaneously, which implied that the heat generated in adsorption might compensate for the decrease in entropy. The Freundlich theory could be utilized to fit the experimental data. The pseudo-second-order equation could describe the process, and the adsorption rate was primarily controlled by liquid film diffusion and pore diffusion. The influencing operation factors (temperature, pH, and the ratio of fermentation broth to resin) of the adsorption process were optimized with response surface methodology. The optimized condition (temperature 22.81 °C, pH 5.19, and the ratio of fermentation broth to resin or RLS 5.11) supported an adsorption rate of 97.03%. These findings would be indispensable for further optimization of the efficient separation of PLA from the fermentation broth, and the fermentation production of PLA in which separation would be included.

Impact of Phellinus gilvus mycelia on growth, immunity and fecal microbiota in weaned piglets

Background

Antibiotics are the most commonly used growth-promoting additives in pig feed especially for weaned piglets. But in recent years their use has been restricted because of bacterial resistance. Phellinus, a genus of medicinal fungi, is widely used in Asia to treat gastroenteric dysfunction, hemrrhage, and tumors. Phellinus is reported to improve body weight on mice with colitis. Therefore, we hypothesize that it could benefit the health and growth of piglets, and could be used as an alternative to antibiotic. Here, the effect of Phellinus gilvus mycelia (SH) and antibiotic growth promoter (ATB) were investigated on weaned piglets.

Methods

A total of 72 crossbred piglets were randomly assigned to three dietary treatment groups (n = 4 pens per treatment group with six piglets per pen). The control group was fed basal diet; the SH treatment group was fed basal diet containing 5 g/kg SH; the ATB treatment group was feed basal diet containing 75 mg/kg aureomycin and 20 mg/kg kitasamycin. The experiment period was 28 days. Average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and feed intake to gain ratio were calculated. The concentrations of immunoglobulin G (IgG), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and myeloperoxidase (MPO) in serum were assessed. Viable plate counts of Escherichia coli in feces were measured. Fecal microbiota was analyzed via the 16S rRNA gene sequencing method.

Results

The ADG (1–28 day) of piglets was significantly higher in SH and ATB treatment groups (P < 0.05) compared to the control, and the ADG did not show significant difference between SH and ATB treatment groups (P > 0.05). Both SH and ATB treatments increased the MPO, IL-1β, and TNF-α levels in serum compared to the control (P < 0.05), but the levels in SH group were all significantly higher than in the ATB group (P < 0.05). Fecal microbiological analysis showed that viable E. coli counts were dramatically decreased by SH and ATB. The 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis showed that ATB shifted the microbiota structure drastically, and significantly increased the relative abundance of Prevotella, Megasphaera, and Faecalibacterium genera. But SH slightly influenced the microbiota structure, and only increased the relative abundance of Alloprevotella genus.

Conclusion

Our work demonstrated that though SH slightly influenced the microbiota structure, it markedly reduced the fecal E. coli population, and improved growth and innate immunity in piglets. Our finding suggested that SH could be an alternative to ATB in piglet feed.

Optimized production and safety evaluation of hispidin-enriched Sanghuangporus sanghuang mycelia

Phellinus linteus, also known as the sanghuang mushroom, is a medicinal mushroom that has been recognized as beneficial to health for more thousands of years. Among its diverse valuable secondary metabolites, the yellow-brown styrylpyrone pigment hispidin has garnered significant attention due to its various pharmacological effects. However, recently after detailed morphological and molecular phylogenetic studies, the correct scientific name of the true sanghuang strains was shown not to be P. linteus but Sanghuangporus sanghuang. As the incorrect binomial name P. linteus has long been misleadingly referred, there is a need to evaluate the safety of S. sanghuang. Moreover, the growing conditions can impact the secondary metabolite profile of the fungi. Hence, this study is the first to optimize hispidin production and to investigate the genotoxic and oral toxic effects of hispidin-enriched S. sanghuang mycelia. In order to induce the biosynthesis of hispidin, 15 different culture media consisting of five carbon sources, five nitrogen sources, and five initial pH conditions were screened. Glucose and yeast extract at an initial pH of 5 were found to be the most suitable carbon and nitrogen sources, respectively, for the optimal growth and production of hispidin. Moreover, the production of hispidin was 3 mg/g in a 20-ton bioreactor under optimal conditions. Furthermore, the ames test, in vitro chromosome aberration test, acute oral toxicity test, and bone marrow micronucleus test were used to detect toxicological properties of 3 mg/g hispidin-enriched S. sanghuang mycelia. In all tests, there was no statistically significant difference between the mycelia and the negative control. Based on the results obtained, the present study demonstrates that 3 mg/g hispidin-enriched S. sanghuang mycelia has a very low order of toxicity, which supports its safety for human consumption.

Dietary Mixed Cereal Grains Ameliorate the Azoxymethane and Dextran Sodium Sulfate-Induced Colonic Carcinogenesis in C57BL/6J Mice

The chemopreventive effects of various mixed cereal grain (MCG) samples on azoxymethane (AOM, 10 mg/kg) and dextran sulfate sodium (DSS, 0.02 g/mL)-induced colorectal cancer (CRC) in C57BL/6J mice were studied. The main MCG preparation consisted of fermented brown rice (FBR), glutinous brown rice, glutinous Sorghum bicolor, glutinous Panicum miliaceum, Coix lacryma-jobi, and black soybean at an appropriate mixing ratio. Other MCG preparations contained rice coated with 5% Phellinus linteus and 5% Curcuma longa (MCG-PC) or 10% Phellinus linteus (MCG-P) or 10% Curcuma longa (MCG-C). Consumption of dietary MCG-PC by CRC mice significantly increased colon length, decreased the ratio of colon weight to length, and reduced the number of colon tumors. Similar effects, although to a lower extent, were observed in CRC mice fed with MCG-P, followed by those fed with MCG-C, MCG, FBR, or white rice. MCG-PC significantly suppressed colonic neoplasia and decreased the levels of various cytokines (tumor necrosis factor: Tnf, interleukin 1 beta: Il1b, interleukin 6: Il6, and interferon gamma: Ifnγ) in serum and colon tissue of the CRC mice. In addition, MCG-PC increased the mRNA expressions of tumor suppressor protein p53 (Tp53) and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1A (Cdkn1a), activated pro-apoptotic caspase 3 (Casp3), and reduced expressions of both mRNA and protein of inducible nitric oxide synthase 2 (Nos2), prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (Ptgs2), and cyclin D1 (Ccnd1) in colon tissue. These findings suggest that compared with other cereal grain preparations, MCG-PC had a greater activity against AOM/DSS-induced CRC by reducing intestinal inflammation and modulating the expression of certain carcinogenesis related factors (Nos2, Ptgs2, Tp53, Cdkn1a, Ccnd1, and Casp3) in colon tissue of CRC mice.

Phellinus baumii enhances the immune response in cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppressed mice

Phellinus species is a mushroom used as traditional medicine in Eastern Asia. Research on Phellinus baumii (PB) is relatively limited; however, it has been reported to have antioxidant, DNA damage-protecting, immunostimulating, and antidiabetic activities. In our previous study on anti-inflammatory properties in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells and the various bioactive components of PB, we propose that PB could exert immune enhancing effects. Therefore, our current study aimed to investigate the immune-enhancing effect on immunosuppressed mice. Different concentrations of PB extract (0, 50, 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg body weight) were given to mice via oral gavage for 6 weeks accompanied by intraperitoneal cyclophosphamide administration to induce immunosuppression. A bone marrow micronucleus test was performed in mice to screen for potential genotoxic compounds. Splenocyte viability and proliferation, splenic and peritoneal natural killer cell activities, and hematological markers were then measured. Cytokines in the spleen and serum, as well as splenic mRNA levels of nuclear factor-κB; interferon-γ; tumor necrosis factor-α; and interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and IL-12, were determined in mice. As a result, PB ameliorated T- and B-lymphocyte proliferation, splenic and peritoneal NK cell activities, bone marrow cells, hematological markers, cytokine levels, and T-lymphocyte numbers. Moreover, serum and spleen cytokine levels and mRNA expression were elevated in the PB groups compared to controls. Our results suggest that the PB extract can be used as a potent immunomodulator under immunosuppressive conditions. Thus, PB may be used as a potent biofunctional and pharmaceutical material to potentially enhance human immunity.

Phellinus linteus polysaccharide extract improves insulin resistance by regulating gut microbiota composition

The hypoglycemic effect of Phellinus linteus polysaccharide extract (PLPE) has been documented in several previous studies, but the functional interactions among PLPE, gut microbiota, and the hypoglycemic effect remain unclear. We examined the regulatory effect of PLPE on gut microbiota, and the molecular mechanism underlying improvement of insulin resistance, using a type 2 diabetic rat model. Here, 24 male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups that were subjected to intervention of saline (normal and model control group), metformin (120 mg/kg.bw), and PLPE (600 mg/kg.bw) by oral administration. After 8 weeks of treatment, PLPE increased levels of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) by enhancing abundance of SCFA-producing bacteria. SCFAs maintained intestinal barrier function and reduced lipopolysaccharides content in blood, thereby helping to reduce systemic inflammation and reverse insulin resistance. Our findings suggest that PLPE (in which polysaccharides are the major component) has potential application as a prebiotic for regulating gut microbiota composition in diabetic patients.

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation mediates kidney disease and renal cell carcinoma

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a well-known ligand-activated cytoplasmic transcription factor that contributes to cellular responses against environmental toxins and carcinogens. AhR is activated by a range of structurally diverse compounds from the environment, microbiome, natural products, and host metabolism, suggesting that AhR possesses a rather promiscuous ligand binding site. Increasing studies have indicated that AhR can be activated by a variety of endogenous ligands and induce the expression of a battery of genes. AhR regulates a variety of physiopathological events, including cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, adhesion and migration. These new roles have expanded our understanding of the AhR signalling pathways and endogenous metabolites interacting with AhR under homeostatic and pathological conditions. Recent studies have demonstrated that AhR is linked to cardiovascular disease (CVD), chronic kidney disease (CKD) and renal cell carcinoma (RCC). In this review, we summarize gut microbiota-derived ligands inducing AhR activity in patients with CKD, CVD, diabetic nephropathy and RCC that may provide a new diagnostic and prognostic approach for complex renal damage. We further highlight polyphenols from natural products as AhR agonists or antagonists that regulate AhR activity. A better understanding of structurally diverse polyphenols and AhR biological activities would allow us to illuminate their molecular mechanism and discover potential therapeutic strategies targeting AhR activation.

Sesquiterpenes from an Eastern African Medicinal Mushroom Belonging to the Genus Sanghuangporus

During the course of searching for new anti-infective and other biologically active secondary metabolites from Kenyan basidiomycetes, 13 previously undescribed metabolites, (6 R,7 S,10 R)-7,10-epoxy-7,11-dimethyldodec-1-ene-6,11-diol (1) and 12 sesquiterpenes named elgonenes A-L (2-13), and the known compound P-coumaric acid (14) were isolated from a basidiomycete collected in Mount Elgon Natural Reserve. The producing organism represents a new species of the genus Sanghuangporus, which is one of the segregates of the important traditional Asian medicinal mushrooms that were formerly known as the " Inonotus linteus" complex. The structure elucidation of compounds 1-13, based on 2D NMR spectroscopy, high-resolution mass spectrometry, and other spectral methods, and their antibacterial, antifungal, and cytotoxic activities are reported.

A Review: The Bioactivities and Pharmacological Applications of Phellinus linteus

Phellinus linteus is a popular medicinal mushroom that is widely used in China, Korea, Japan, and other Asian countries. P. linteus comprises various bioactive components, such as polysaccharides, triterpenoids, phenylpropanoids, and furans, and has proven to be an effective therapeutic agent in traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment and the prevention of various diseases. A number of studies have reported that P. linteus possesses many biological activities useful for pharmacological applications, including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antioxidative, and antifungal activities, as well as antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective effects. This review article briefly presents the recent progress made in understanding the bioactive components, biological activities, pharmacological applications, safety, and prospects of P. linteus, and provides helpful references and promising directions for further studies of P. linteus.

Inonotus sanghuang Polyphenols Attenuate Inflammatory Response Via Modulating the Crosstalk Between Macrophages and Adipocytes

Aims: Obesity is characterized as a chronic state of low-grade inflammation with progressive immune cell infiltration into adipose tissue. Adipose tissue macrophages play a critical role in the establishment of chronic inflammatory states and metabolic dysfunctions. Inonotus (I.) sanghuang and its extract polyphenols exhibit anti-carcinogenesis, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidant activities. However, the action of I. sanghuang polyphenols in obesity-related inflammation has not been reported. The aim of this study was to explore the anti-inflammatory action of polyphenols from I. sanghuang extract (ISE) in macrophages and the interaction between macrophages and adipocytes.

Materials and Methods: RAW264.7 macrophages were stimulated with LPS or conditioned medium of hypertrophied 3T3-L1 adipocytes or cocultured with differentiated adipocytes in the presence of different doses of ISE. The inflammatory cytokines were evaluated by ELISA, the MAPK, NF-κB, and IL-6/STAT3 signals were determined by immunoblotting, and the migrated function of macrophages was determined by migration assay.

Results: ISE suppressed the inflammatory mediators including NO, TNF-α, IL-6, and MCP-1 induced by either LPS or conditioned medium derived from 3T3-L1 adipocytes. ISE also decreased the production of these inflammatory mediators in cocultures of 3T3-L1 adipocytes and RAW264.7 macrophages. Furthermore, ISE blocked RAW264.7 macrophages migration toward 3T3-L1 adipocytes in cocultures. Finally, this effect of ISE might be mediated via inhibiting ERK, p38, and STAT3 activation.

Conclusions: Our findings indicate the possibility that ISE suppresses the interaction between macrophages and adipocytes, attenuates chronic inflammation in adipose tissue and improves obesity-related insulin resistance and complication, suggesting that ISE might be a valuable medicinal food effective in improving insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome.

Antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effect of Phellinus igniarius on RAW 264.7 macrophage cells

This study investigated the antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effect of Phellinus igniarius (PI) on RAW264.7 mouse macrophages. Cell viability was determined using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Measurement of nitric oxide (NO) synthesis was performed using the NO detection. To identify mRNA expressions of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), inducible NO synthase (iNOS), interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, real time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed. Assessment of prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) synthesis was performed using the PGE₂ immunoassay. Measurement of free radical scavenging activity was performed using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. The MTT assay revealed that PI exerted no significant cytotoxicity in the RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. From the PGE₂ immunoassay and NO detection, PGE₂ and NO synthesis were significantly suppressed in the PI treated groups compared to the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treated groups. Real-time PCR analysis revealed that the mRNA expression of COX-2, iNOS, IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-5, and TNF-α were significantly decreased in the PI treated groups compared to the LPS treated groups. And, PI showed dose-dependent increase in the DPPH radical scavenging activity. In conclusion, PI maybe offer a valuable mode of therapy for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Hypoglycemic and Hypolipidemic Effects of Phellinus Linteus Mycelial Extract from Solid-State Culture in A Rat Model of Type 2 Diabetes

Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of P. linteus have been observed in numerous studies, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are unclear. In this study, we prepared P. linteus extract (PLE) from mycelia of solid-state culture, and evaluated its hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects in rat models of high-fat diet (HFD)-induced and low-dose streptozotocin (STZ)-induced type 2 diabetes. PLE treatment effectively reduced blood glucose levels, and improved insulin resistance and lipid and lipoprotein profiles. The hypoglycemic effect of PLE was based on inhibition of key hepatic gluconeogenesis enzymes (FBPase, G6Pase) expression and hepatic glycogen degradation, and consequent reduction of hepatic glucose production. PLE also: (i) enhanced expression of CPT1A and ACOX1 (key proteins involved in fatty acid β-oxidation) and low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) in liver, thus promoting clearance of triglycerides and LDL-C; (ii) inhibited expression of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR) in liver, thus reducing cholesterol production; (iii) displayed strong hepatoprotective and renal protective effects. Our findings indicate that PLE has strong potential functional food application in adjuvant treatment of type 2 diabetes with dyslipidemia.

Antiallergic Activity of the Wild Mushrooms of Nepal and the Pure Compound Hispidin

In the present study, ethanol extracts of 90 wild mushroom samples from Nepal, and the pure compound hispidin, were screened for their ability to inhibit β-hexosaminidase release (BHR) from rat basophilic leukemia-2H3 cells. Simultaneously, the toxicity of the extracts toward the cells was also determined, using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Samples belonging to the groups Hymenochaetales and Polyporales showed promising anti-allergic activity, with Phellinus adamantinus and Ganoderma lingzhi 3 allowing a mere 19.4% and 16.7% BHR, respectively, without any cell cytotoxicity. Moreover, the 50% inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) values for Inonotus clemensiae and P. adamantinus were determined to be 51.24 and 50.65 μg/mL, respectively; whereas hispidin, the major bioactive compound in I. clemensiae showed an IC₅₀ value of 82.47 μg/mL. These findings are crucial in underscoring the medicinal value of the wild mushrooms of Nepal, as a source of strong antiallergic agents.

Yinchenhao Decoction Alleviates Liver Fibrosis by Regulating Bile Acid Metabolism and TGF-β/Smad/ERK Signalling Pathway

Yinchenhao decoction (YCHD), comprising Yinchenhao (Artemisiae Scopariae Herba), Zhizi (Gardeniae Fructus) and Dahuang (Radix Rhei et Rhizoma), is widely used for treating various diseases. We aimed to investigate the bile acid metabolic mechanism of YCHD in dimethylnitrosamine (DMN)-induced liver fibrosis model. Rats received DMN (10 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) for four successive weeks for liver fibrosis induction and were treated with YCHD for the last 2 weeks. Histopathological analysis showed that YCHD prevented DMN-induced histopathological changes in liver tissues. Serum liver function in YCHD group improved. Ultraperformance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis showed that YCHD significantly restored both free and conjugated bile acid levels increased by DMN, to normal levels. RT-qPCR results showed that YCHD treatment upregulated the expression of genes related to bile acid synthesis, reabsorption, and excretion. Western blotting analysis showed that YCHD downregulated α-SMA, TGF-β1, p-Smad3, and p-ERK1/2 expression in chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA)-activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). The viability of CDCA-activated HSCs significantly increased after treatment with YCHD and PD98059 (an ERK inhibitor) compared to YCHD treatment alone. Our findings suggest that YCHD alleviated DMN-induced liver fibrosis by regulating enzymes responsible for bile acid metabolism. Additionally, it inhibits CDCA-induced HSC proliferation and activation via TGF-β1/Smad/ERK signalling pathway.

Radix Tetrastigma hemsleyani flavone exhibits antitumor activity in colorectal cancer via Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

Background

Radix Tetrastigma hemsleyani flavone (RTHF) is extracted from a traditional Chinese medicinal herb T. hemsleyani, which is conventionally used as a folk medicine for its anti-inflammation activity and antiviral activity. In this study, the effects of RTHF on inhibiting malignant biological properties in colorectal cancer (CRC) were evaluated by conducting both in vitro and in vivo experiments, and the underlying mechanism was investigated.

Materials and methods

Cell Counting Kit-8, colony formation, and flow cytometry assays were performed to evaluate the proliferation of RTHF-treated colon tumor cells. Migration and invasion capacities were also tested by cell wound scratch assay and Transwell invasion assay. Moreover, the antitumor effects of RTHF on azoxymethane/dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis-related CRC were investigated in C57BL/6 mice. In addition, Western blot and/or quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis were used to evaluate the expressions of Lgr5, Cyclin D1, c-Myc, and E-cadherin.

Results

These experiments showed that RTHF could decrease the cell growth kinetics and clone-forming capacity. RTHF could also dose dependently induce cell cycle arrest at G0/G1 phase and inhibit epithelial-mesenchymal transition process. Furthermore, downregulation of β-catenin activation and downstream protein expression were detected in CRC cells after being treated with RTHF. RTHF daily gavage suppressed the number and size of CRC in mice and inhibited Lgr5 and Cyclin D1 expressions in tumor tissue.

Conclusion

In conclusion, RTHF treatment inhibits colorectal tumor growth, decreases Wnt/β-catenin pathway activity, and downregulates target genes’ expression.

Fermented Asterina pectinifera with Cordyceps militaris Mycelia Induced Apoptosis in B16F10 Melanoma Cells

This prime objective of this study was to explore the anti-cancer activity of fermented Asterina pectinifera with Cordyceps militaris mycelia (FACM) in B16F10 murine melanoma cells. The effect of FACM on cell viability was assessed using MTT assay. Furthermore, the effect of FACM was compared with unfermented A. pectinifera on cell viability. The results demonstrated that the fermented FACM extract has a higher inhibitory activity on the proliferation of B16F10 murine melanoma cells than unfermented A. pectinifera. In addition, FACM also promoted the expression of pro-apoptotic protein Bax leading to stimulate apoptosis in B16F10 cells. Therefore the present study demonstrates that the FACM might be a potential effective anti-cancer agent, as a result of its stronger anti-proliferative effect and apoptosis inducing effect than A. pectinifera or C. militaris on melanoma cells.

New insights into TGF-β/Smad signaling in tissue fibrosis

Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) is considered as a crucial mediator in tissue fibrosis and causes tissue scarring largely by activating its downstream small mother against decapentaplegic (Smad) signaling. Different TGF-β signalings play different roles in fibrogenesis. TGF-β1 directly activates Smad signaling which triggers pro-fibrotic gene overexpression. Excessive studies have demonstrated that dysregulation of TGF-β1/Smad pathway was an important pathogenic mechanism in tissue fibrosis. Smad2 and Smad3 are the two major downstream regulator that promote TGF-β1-mediated tissue fibrosis, while Smad7 serves as a negative feedback regulator of TGF-β1/Smad pathway thereby protects against TGF-β1-mediated fibrosis. This review presents an overview of the molecular mechanisms of TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway in renal, hepatic, pulmonary and cardiac fibrosis, followed by an in-depth discussion of their molecular mechanisms of intervention effects both in vitro and in vivo. The role of TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway in tumor or cancer is also discussed. Additionally, the current advances also highlight targeting TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway for the prevention of tissue fibrosis. The review reveals comprehensive pathophysiological mechanisms of tissue fibrosis. Particular challenges are presented and placed within the context of future applications against tissue fibrosis.

Astragaloside IV ameliorates early diabetic nephropathy by inhibition of MEK1/2-ERK1/2-RSK2 signaling in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice

Objective The aim of this study was to investigate the renoprotective effects and molecular mechanisms of astragaloside IV (AS-IV) in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice. Methods Male C57BL/6 mice were injected intraperitoneally with STZ at 200 mg/kg body weight. AS-IV was administered for 8 consecutive weeks, beginning 1 week after STZ injection. Body weight, 24-hour urinary albumin excretion, and fasting blood glucose were measured. Kidney tissues were examined by histopathological analyses. Total levels and phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase 1/2 (MEK1/2), extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2), and ribosomal S6 kinase 2 (RSK2) were determined by Western blotting analysis. Results AS-IV treatment significantly reduced albuminuria and serum creatinine levels, ameliorated mesangial matrix expansion and greater foot process width, and decreased the levels of urinary N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase, neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin, and transforming growth factor-beta 1 in STZ-induced diabetic mice. AS-IV also inhibited renal cortical phosphorylation of MEK1/2, ERK1/2 and RSK2. Conclusion Our results suggest that AS-IV attenuates renal injury in STZ-induced diabetic mice. This effect might be partially associated with inhibition of the activation of the MEK1/2-ERK1/2-RSK2 signaling pathway.

Metabolic profiles revealed anti-ischemia-reperfusion injury of Yangxinshi tablet in Rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury is a serious injury that is resulted from the recovery of blood supply after myocardial ischemia. Yangxinshi tablet is a compound Chinese herbal preparation and often used to alleviate the myocardial ischemia in clinical, but its protective mechanism of anti-myocardial ischemia reperfusion injury remains unclear. The objective of this study was to evaluate the anti-I/R injury effect of Yangxinshi tablet on a myocardial I/R rat model and to identify serum biomarker metabolites associated with I/R based on ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF/MS) metabolomic method, and explore the metabolic mechanism of anti-I/R injury of Yangxinshi tablet.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Unsupervised principle component analysis highlighted significant differences in the metabolome of the myocardial I/R, healthy control and drug-treated rats. Partial least squares-discriminant analysis revealed 25 metabolites as the most potential biomarker metabolites discriminating the myocardial I/R rats and control rats. Most of the metabolites were primarily involved in oxidative stress, energy metabolism, fatty acid metabolism, amino acid metabolism. These metabolites were validated by assessing the efficacy after intragastric administration of Yangxinshit ablet to the myocardial I/R rat model.

RESULTS

Based on metabolomic results, the action mechanism of anti-I/R injury of Yangxinshi tablet was concluded as follows: (1) enhance the ability of scavenging free radicals and reactive oxygen species in vivo; (2) provide energy for myocardium via accelerating the intracellular carnitine transportion to accelerate the oxidation of fatty acid and (3) attenuate ceramide to reduce cardiomyocyte apoptosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Yangxinshi tablet has cardio-protection effects on I/R rats via regulation of multiple metabolic pathways involving in oxidative stress, energy metabolism, fatty acid, and amino acid metabolisms. This study will be meaningful for its clinical application and valuable for further exploring the action mechanism of Yangxinshi tablet.

Phellilane L, Sesquiterpene Metabolite of Phellinus linteus: Isolation, Structure Elucidation, and Asymmetric Total Synthesis

A new cyclopropane-containing sesquiterpenoid, phellilane L (1), was isolated from the medicinal mushroom Phellinus linteus ("Meshimakobu" in Japanese), a member of the Hymenochaetaceae family and a well-known fungus that is widely used in East Asia. The planar structure of 1 was determined on the basis of spectroscopic analysis. The authors achieved the first total synthesis of 1. Our protecting group-free synthesis features a highly stereoselective one-pot synthesis involving an intermolecular alkylation/cyclization/lactonization strategy for construction of the key cyclopropane-γ-lactone intermediate. Additionally, our synthesis determined the absolute configuration of phellilane L (1).

Antitumorpharmacological mechanism of the oral liquid of Poriacocos polysaccharide

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The liquid oral formulation of Poria cocos polysaccharides is composed of polysaccharides of Lentinusedodes, Ganodermalucidum and Poria cocos(1:1:2), which are all fungi used in traditional Chinese medicine. Polysaccharides extracted from these fungi have been reported to exhibit an antitumor effect by modulating the immune system.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study aimed to clarify the antitumor mechanism of an orally administered liquid containing Poriacocos and to further provide clinical guidance.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, the effects of an orally administered liquid containing Poriacocos polysaccharides on the solid tumors formed from sarcoma 180 cells in mice were evaluated. The protein expression of Bcl-2, caspase-3, and caspase-9in the thymus, spleen and liver tissues in the mice was determined by Western blot analysis. In addition, hematoxylin-eosin（H&E）staining and immunohistochemistry were performed on thymus, spleen and liver tissue and the positive staining rate was calculated for the three protein expression.

RESULTS

The liquid oral formulation of Poriacocos polysaccharides reduced Bcl-2 protein levels and increased caspase-3 and -9 protein levels in sarcoma 180 cells.

CONCLUSION

The mechanism underlying the antitumor effects of the oral liquid formulation of Poriacocos polysaccharides involved inhibition of Bcl-2 expression and activation of caspase-9 expression in sarcoma 180 cells. Furthermore, the downstream caspase-3 promoter cascade was activated and cell apoptosis was activated in sarcoma 180 cells.

Erhuang Formula ameliorates renal damage in adenine-induced chronic renal failure rats via inhibiting inflammatory and fibrotic responses

AIMS

The present study aimed to evaluate the protective effects of Erhuang Formula (EHF) and explore its pharmacological mechanisms on adenine-induced chronic renal failure (CRF).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The compounds in EHF were analyzed by HPLC/MS. Adenine-induced CRF rats were administrated by EHF. The effects were evaluated by renal function examination and histology staining. Immunostaining of some proteins related cell adhesion was performedin renal tissues, including E-cadherin, β-catenin, fibronectin and laminin. The qRT-PCR was carried out determination of gene expression related inflammation and fibrosis including NF-κB, TNF-α, TGF-β1, α-SMA and osteopontin (OPN).

RESULTS

Ten compounds in EHF were identified including liquiritigenin, farnesene, vaccarin, pachymic acid, cycloastragenol, astilbin, 3,5,6,7,8,3',4'-heptemthoxyflavone, physcion, emodin and curzerene. Abnormal renal function and histology had significant improvements by EHF treatment. The protein expression of β-catenin, fibronectin and laminin were significantly increased and the protein expression of E-cadherin significantly decreased in CRF groups. However, these protein expressions were restored to normal levels in EHF group. Furthermore, low expression of PPARγ and high expression of NF-κB, TNF-α, TGF-β1, α-SMA and OPN were substantially restored by EHF treatment in a dose-dependent manner.

CONCLUSIONS

EHF ameliorated renal damage in adenine-induced CRF rats, and the mechanisms might involve in the inhibition of inflammatory and fibrotic responses and the regulation of PPARγ, NF-κB and TGF-β signaling pathways.

Phellinus linteus Mycelium Alleviates Myocardial Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury through Autophagic Regulation

The incidence of myocardial ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury is rapidly increasing around the world and this disease is a major contributor to global morbidity and mortality. It is known that regulation of programmed cell death including apoptosis and autophagy reduces the impact of myocardial IR injury. In this study, the cardioprotective effects and underlying mechanisms of Phellinus linteus (Berk. and Curt.) Teng, Hymenochaetaceae (PL), a type of medicinal mushroom, were examined in rats subjected to myocardial IR injury. The left main coronary artery of rats was ligated for 1 h and reperfused for 3 h. The arrhythmia levels were monitored during the entire process and the infarct size was evaluated after myocardial IR injury. Furthermore, the expression levels of proteins in apoptotic and autophagic pathways were observed. Pretreatment with PL mycelium (PLM) significantly reduced ventricular arrhythmia and mortality due to myocardial IR injury. PLM also significantly decreased myocardial infarct size and plasma lactate dehydrogenase level after myocardial IR injury. Moreover, PLM administration resulted in decreased caspase 3 and caspase 9 activation and increased Bcl-2/Bax ratio. Phosphorylation level of AMPK was elevated while mTOR level was reduced. Becline-1 and p62 levels decreased. These findings suggest that PLM is effective in protecting the myocardium against IR injury. The mechanism involves mediation through suppressed pro-apoptotic signaling and regulation of autophagic signaling, including stimulation of AMPK-dependent pathway and inhibition of beclin-1-dependent pathway, resulting in enhancement of protective autophagy and inhibition of excessive autophagy.

Evaluation of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative activities of ethanol extracts from different varieties of Sanghuang species

Sanghuangporus sanghuang is a rare fungal species that grows on wild mulberry trees, and its yield is much lower than that of valuable medicinal herbs.