Transenteric drainage of pancreatic-fluid collections with fully covered self-expanding metallic stents (with video)

Evaluation of the AXIOS stent for the treatment of pancreatic fluid collections

INTRODUCTION

Endoscopic ultrasound guided translumenal drainage of pancreatic fluid collections (PFCs) has been widely practiced for over a decade, using conventional plastic and self-expandable metal stents. The use of such stents for transmural drainage is off-label and limited by the lack of lumen-to-lumen anchorage, which can lead to leakage, migration and tissue trauma.

AREAS COVERED

Novel stent designs dedicated to applications of translumenal drainage have recently emerged and promise to make transmural drainage quicker, safer, and more effective. Achieving faster resolution of the fluid collection, decreasing adverse events, decreasing recurrence rates, and lowering costs are critical to advancing the endoscopic management of PFCs. Expert commentary: Our paper suggests that the AXIOS stent is an innovative therapeutic approach for PFC drainage with excellent efficacy, safety, and relatively few adverse outcomes. Preliminary reports appear promising and large multicenter prospective studies are needed in the future to further determine its safety and efficacy.

Modified single transluminal gateway transcystic multiple drainage technique for a huge infected walled-off pancreatic necrosis: A case report

We report a successful endoscopic ultrasonography-guided drainage of a huge infected multilocular walled-off necrosis (WON) that was treated by a modified single transluminal gateway transcystic multiple drainage (SGTMD) technique. After placing a wide-caliber fully covered metal stent, follow-up computed tomography revealed an undrained subcavity of WON. A large fistula that was created by the wide-caliber metal stent enabled the insertion of a forward-viewing upper endoscope directly into the main cavity, and the narrow connection route within the main cavity to the subcavity was identified with a direct view, leading to the successful drainage of the subcavity. This modified SGTMD technique appears to be useful for seeking connection routes between subcavities of WON in some cases.

Removal of displaced double flanged metal stent in walled-off necrosis by endoscopic ultrasonography

Endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS)-guided walled-off necrosis drainage using a double flanged metal stent was reported for satisfactory drainage and endoscopic necrosectomy. High complication rates related to stent migration are reported. This is the first report of the removal of a displaced, double flanged metal stent in walled-off necrosis by EUS. The patient was a 62-year-old male who was suffering from mild midepigastric abdominal pain. A double flanged metal stent had been placed in our endoscopy center 8 weeks before presentation. Computed tomography demonstrated complete resolution of the walled-off necrosis; however, the stent migrated into the cyst. We dislodged the stent using forceps with real-time endosonography.

In conclusion, Follow-up is important for patients with a double flanged metal stent, specifically with regards to postprocedural stent migration.

EUS-guided drainage of peripancreatic fluid collections and necrosis by using a novel lumen-apposing stent: a large retrospective, multicenter U.S. experience (with videos)

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

EUS-guided drainage of peripancreatic fluid collection (PFC) (pancreatic pseudocyst [PP] or walled-off necrosis [WON]) by using a novel lumen-apposing, fully covered, self-expandable metal stent (LAMS) has been promising, but few of these data are from the United States. The aim of this study was to evaluate clinical outcomes and safety of EUS-guided drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts and WON by using the LAMS.

METHODS

We conducted a multicenter, retrospective study on 82 patients with symptomatic PFC who underwent EUS-guided drainage by using the LAMS at 4 U.S. tertiary care centers. Outcomes evaluated included successful placement of the LAMS, the number of patients in whom complete resolution of PPs or WON was achieved, the number of procedures performed per patient to achieve PFC resolution, and adverse events.

RESULTS

The mean size of the PFC was 11.8 cm. LAMSs were successfully placed in 80 patients (97.5%). Twelve patients had PP and 68 had WON. The median stent in-dwelling time was 2 months (range 1-3 months). Endoscopic debridement with the LAMS in WON was performed in 54 patients. The patency of the stent was maintained in 98.7% of the patients (77/78). There was spontaneous dislodgment of 2 LAMSs. Successful endoscopic therapy by using the LAMS was successful in 12 of 12 patients (100%) with PP compared with 60 of 68 patients (88.2%) with WON. All stents were endoscopically removed from all patients after peripancreatic fluid collection (PFC) resolution. There was 1 PFC recurrence during the 3-month median follow-up period. Procedure-related adverse events occurred in 8 patients (9.8%), and included stent maldeployment (n = 2), and self-limited bleeding (n = 6). In 1 patient with stent maldeployment gastric perforation developed, and the patient underwent surgical repair.

CONCLUSION

EUS-guided drainage of PFCs by using the novel LAMS has high technical and long-term success rates. Due to its ease of use, the LAMSs may simplify and streamline EUS-guided management of PFCs, particularly for the endoscopic debridement of WON, and may help in its widespread adoption as an alternative to surgery.

Pancreatic Pseudocysts: Advances in Endoscopic Management

Endoscopic drainage is the first-line therapy in the management of pancreatic pseudocysts. Before endoscopic drainage, clinicians should exclude the presence of pancreatic cystic neoplasms and avoid drainage of immature peripancreatic fluid collections or pseudoaneurysms. The indication for endoscopic drainage is not dependent on absolute cyst size alone, but on the presence of attributable signs or symptoms. Endoscopic management should be performed as part of a multidisciplinary approach in close cooperation with surgeons and interventional radiologists. Drainage may be performed either via a transpapillary approach or a transmural approach; additionally, endoscopic necrosectomy may be performed for patients with walled-off necrosis.

Endoscopic ultrasonography in interventional diagnosis and treatment of digestive diseases

Since 1980, when endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) was invented, great progress has been made in the development of EUS devices and technology, and EUS-guided diagnosis and treatment of digestive diseases have been widely adopted. Because of its safety, effectiveness and minimal invasion, EUS-guided interventional diagnosis and treatment of digestive diseases have been widely applied in the clinical work, and more and more new technologies are being developed. In this paper, we review the recent progress of EUS for the interventional diagnosis and treatment of digestive diseases.

Management of pancreatic fluid collections: A comprehensive review of the literature

Pancreatic fluid collections (PFCs) are a frequent complication of pancreatitis. It is important to classify PFCs to guide management. The revised Atlanta criteria classifies PFCs as acute or chronic, with chronic fluid collections subdivided into pseudocysts and walled-off pancreatic necrosis (WOPN). Establishing adequate nutritional support is an essential step in the management of PFCs. Early attempts at oral feeding can be trialed in patients with mild pancreatitis. Enteral feeding should be implemented in patients with moderate to severe pancreatitis. Jejunal feeding remains the preferred route of enteral nutrition. Symptomatic PFCs require drainage; options include surgical, percutaneous, or endoscopic approaches. With the advent of newer and more advanced endoscopic tools and expertise, and an associated reduction in health care costs, minimally invasive endoscopic drainage has become the preferable approach. An endoscopic ultrasonography-guided approach using a seldinger technique is the preferred endoscopic approach. Both plastic stents and metal stents are efficacious and safe; however, metal stents may offer an advantage, especially in infected pseudocysts and in WOPN. Direct endoscopic necrosectomy is often required in WOPN. Lumen apposing metal stents that allow for direct endoscopic necrosectomy and debridement through the stent lumen are preferred in these patients. Endoscopic retrograde cholangio pancreatography with pancreatic duct (PD) exploration should be performed concurrent to PFC drainage. PD disruption is associated with an increased severity of pancreatitis, an increased risk of recurrent attacks of pancreatitis and long-term complications, and a decreased rate of PFC resolution after drainage. Any pancreatic ductal disruption should be bridged with endoscopic stenting.

Risk factors for infection after endoscopic ultrasonography-guided drainage of specific types of pancreatic and peripancreatic fluid collections (with video)

Background

Endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS)-guided drainage is widely used for the treatment of specific types of peripancreatic fluid collections (PFCs). Infectious complications have been reported. It is recommended that the infection rate should be assessed by measuring risk factors. The objectives of this study were to measure whether the risk of infection after EUS-guided drainage was associated with patient- and procedure-related factors.

Methods

Eighty-three patients were eligible for inclusion from September 2008 to November 2012. EUS-guided drainage was performed in all patients. Infectious complications were observed, and data on patient- and procedure-related factors were collected. Patient-related factors mainly included age, sex, etiology of PFC, and cyst location and diameter. Procedure-related factors mainly included approach of EUS-guided drainage and stent diameter. Separate multivariate logistic regression models for all EUS-guided drainage were carried out.

Results

Complete EUS-guided drainage was achieved in all patients. A definitive diagnosis of infection after EUS-guided drainage was made in seven patients. All seven patients had a history of acute pancreatitis, and the cyst diameters were all >15 cm. Three patients had diabetes mellitus.

Conclusions

The cyst diameter was an independent risk factor for infection. Larger cysts with a diameter >15 cm should perhaps be drained initially with multiple pigtail or a larger diameter self-expandable metal stents to try to avoid infection.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00464-015-4557-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

EUS-guided drainage of pancreatic fluid collections using a novel lumen-apposing metal stent on an electrocautery-enhanced delivery system: a large retrospective study (with video)

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

A lumen-apposing, self-expanding metal stent incorporated in an electrocautery-enhanced delivery system for EUS-guided drainage of pancreatic fluid collections (PFCs) recently has become available. The aim of this study was to analyze the safety and clinical effectiveness of this newly developed device in this clinical setting.

METHODS

This was a retrospective analysis of all consecutive patients with PFCs who underwent EUS-guided drainage using the study device in 13 European centers.

RESULTS

Ninety-three patients with PFCs (80% with complex collections) underwent drainage using the study device. Penetration of the PFC was accomplished directly with the study device in 74.2% of patients, and successful stent placement was accomplished in all but 1 patient, mostly without fluoroscopic assistance. Direct endoscopic necrosectomy (DEN) was carried out in 31 of 52 cases (59.6%) of walled-off necrosis and in 2 of 4 cases (50%) of acute peripancreatic fluid collection. Complete resolution of the PFC was obtained in 86 cases (92.5%), with no recurrence during follow-up. Treatment failure occurred in 6 patients because of persistent infection requiring surgery (n = 3), perforation and massive bleeding caused by the nasocystic drainage catheter (NCDC) (n = 2), and the need for a larger opening to extract large necrotic tissue pieces (n = 1). Major adverse events occurred in 5 patients (perforation and massive bleeding caused by the NCDC in 2 patients, 1 pneumoperitoneum and 1 stent dislodgement during DEN, and 1 postdrainage infection) and were mostly not related to the drainage procedure.

CONCLUSIONS

EUS-guided drainage with the electrocautery-enhanced delivery system is a safe, easy to perform, and a highly effective minimally invasive treatment modality for PFCs.

Endosonography guided management of pancreatic fluid collections

The revised Atlanta classification of acute pancreatitis was adopted by international consensus, and is based on actual local and systemic determinants of disease severity. The local determinant is pancreatic necrosis (sterile or infected), and the systemic determinant is organ failure. Local complications of pancreatitis can include acute peri-pancreatic fluid collection, acute necrotic collection, pseudocyst formation, and walled-off necrosis. Interventional endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) has been increasing utilized in managing these local complications. After performing a PubMed search, the authors manually applied pre-defined inclusion criteria or a filter to identify publications relevant to EUS and pancreatic collections (PFCs). The authors then reviewed the utility, efficacy, and risks associated with using therapeutic EUS and involved EUS devices in treating PFCs. Due to the development and regulatory approval of improved and novel endoscopic devices specifically designed for transmural drainage of fluid and necrotic debris (access and patency devices), the authors predict continuing evolution in the management of PFCs. We believe that EUS will become an indispensable part of procedures used to diagnose PFCs and perform image-guided interventions. After draining a PFC, the amount of tissue necrosis is the most important predictor of a successful outcome. Hence, it seems logical to classify these collections based on their percentage of necrotic component or debris present when viewed by imaging methods or EUS. Finally, the authors propose an algorithm for managing fluid collections based on their size, location, associated symptoms, internal echogenic patterns, and content.

Metal versus plastic for pancreatic pseudocyst drainage: clinical outcomes and success

BACKGROUND

Endoscopic transmural drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts (PPs) by using double-pigtail (DP) plastic stents requires placement of multiple stents and can be restricted by inadequate drainage and leakage risk. Recently, the use of fully covered self-expanding metal stents (FCSEMSs) has been reported as an alternative to DP plastic stents.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the clinical outcomes, success rate, and adverse events of EUS-guided drainage of PPs with DP plastic stents and FCSEMSs.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING

Two tertiary-care academic medical centers.

PATIENTS

This study involved 230 patients (mean age, 52.6 years) with PPs who underwent EUS-guided transmural drainage including 118 that were drained by using DP plastic stents and 112 by using FCSEMSs. A transgastric approach was used in 210 patients (91%), and transduodenal drainage was performed in 20 patients (9%).

INTERVENTIONS

Stent deployment under EUS guidance.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Technical success, early adverse events, stent occlusion requiring reintervention, and long-term success.

RESULTS

At 12-month follow-up after the initial procedure, complete resolution of PPs by using DP plastic stents was lower compared with those that underwent drainage with FCSEMSs (89% vs 98%; P = .01). Procedural adverse events were noted in 31% in the DP plastic stent group and 16% in the FCSEMS group (P = .006). On multivariable analysis, patients with plastic stents were 2.9 times more likely to experience adverse events (odds ratio 2.9; 95% confidence interval, 1.4-6.3).

LIMITATIONS

Retrospective study.

CONCLUSION

In patients with PPs, EUS-guided drainage by using FCSEMSs improves clinical outcomes and lowers adverse event rates compared with those drained with DP plastic stents.

EUS-guided pseudocyst drainage: prospective evaluation of early removal of fully covered self-expandable metal stents with pancreatic ductal stenting in selected patients

BACKGROUND

EUS-guided pseudocyst drainage with fully covered self-expandable metal stents (FCSEMSs) was recently described. The appropriate period for stent removal is not known.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the safety and efficacy of EUS-guided FCSEMS placement for 3 weeks, along with pancreatic ductal stenting in selected patients.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective, single-center evaluation.

SETTING

Tertiary referral center.

PATIENTS

Symptomatic pseudocysts in the body and tail region of the pancreas.

INTERVENTIONS

EUS-guided transgastric placement of FCSEMS. MRCP was performed after 3 weeks. Patients with a suspected pancreatic duct leak underwent ERCP and plastic stent placement. The FCSEMSs were removed at 3 weeks.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Success of FCSEMS placement, adverse events, and recurrence rate.

RESULTS

Forty-seven patients met the eligibility criteria. Technical and functional success was achieved in 43 patients (intention to treat, 91.48% and 95.34% patients [per protocol, 41/43, respectively]). Adverse events occurred in 2 patients (cyst infections, 4.6%). Follow-up of 42 patients at 3 weeks was performed. MRCP detected a ductal leak in 3 patients (7.1%) and a disconnected duct in 2 patients (4.7%). ERCP and stenting were successful in all 3 patients with a ductal leak. During a median follow-up of 306 days in 42 patients, 2 recurrences (4.7%) were detected, both in patients with disconnected duct. Multivariate analysis showed that pancreatic ductal leak or disconnection was an independent factor affecting pseudocyst resolution at 3 weeks (P = .0001).

LIMITATIONS

Single-center study.

CONCLUSION

Short-term placement of FCSEMSs with pancreatic ductal stenting in selected patients appears safe and effective for the treatment of pseudocysts.

Endoscopic drainage of pancreatic fluid collections using a fully covered expandable metal stent with antimigratory fins

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Endoscopic drainage is the first consideration in treating pancreatic fluid collections (PFCs). Recent data suggests it may be useful in complicated PFCs as well. Most of the available data assess the use of plastic stents, but scarce data exists on metal stent management of PFCs. The aim of our study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of a metal stent in the management of PFCs.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Data were collected prospectively on 47 patients diagnosed with PFCs from March 2007 to August 2011 at 3 tertiary care centers. These patients underwent endoscopic transmural placement of a fully covered self-expanding metal stent (FCSEMS) with antimigratory fins of 10 mm diameter.

RESULTS

The stent was successfully placed in all patients, and left in place an average of 13 weeks (range 0.4-36 weeks). Etiology of the PFC was biliary pancreatitis (23), pancreas divisum (2), trauma (4), hyperlipidemia (3), alcoholic (8), smoking (2), idiopathic (4), and medication-induced (1). PFCs resolved in 36 patients, for an overall success rate of 77%. Complications included fever (3), stent migration (2) and abdominal pain (1).

CONCLUSIONS

The use of FCSEMS is successful in the majority of patients with low complication rates. A large sample-sized RCT is needed to confirm if the resolution of PFCs is long-standing.

Endoscopic ultrasound-guided pancreatic pseudocyst cystogastrostomy using a novel self-expandable metal stent with antimigration system: A case series

Background and Objectives:

Development of symptomatic pseudocysts after acute pancreatitis is a common occurrence. Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-guided transmural drainage has become the treatment of choice for symptomatic pseudocysts. Following this procedure, stent migration can occur. A recently developed fully covered biliary metal stent with antimigration system has shown promise as an alternative endoprosthetic option for cystogastrostomy. The aim of this study is to describe the success and complications of using covered metal stents with antimigration system to drain pseudocysts at a single tertiary care center.

Materials and Methods:

The patients undergoing cystogastrostomy using the biliary metal stent with antimigration system over the course of a 10-month period (January-November, 2014) were retrospectively reviewed and all the pertinent information including length of the follow-up, age and sex of the patient, pseudocyst size, pseudocyst size at follow-up, and symptom improvement were recorded.

Results:

Five patients underwent endoscopic cystogastrostomy using a biliary metal stent with antimigration system. The average age of the patients was 57 years, with all the patients being males. The average size of the largest dimension of pseudocyst was 9 cm. The average follow-up time to repeat imaging was 30 days. All the patients had a significant improvement in their pseudocyst size, with two patients having complete resolution, one patient with a residual 2 cm cyst, and another with a residual 5 cm pseudocyst at follow-up. The average size at follow-up was 2 cm. No complications occurred during the follow-up period. No episodes of stent migration occurred. All the patients had symptom improvement at follow-up.

Conclusion:

Using a novel biliary covered self-expandable metal stent with antimigration system with EUS guidance to drain pseudocysts appears to be a safe and effective procedure in certain settings. Our experience shows rapid cyst resolution with no complications and no stent migration. This stent gives the providers another option when performing cystogastrostomy.

Endoscopic ultrasound guided interventional procedures

Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) has emerged as an important diagnostic and therapeutic modality in the field of gastrointestinal endoscopy. EUS provides access to many organs and lesions which are in proximity to the gastrointestinal tract and thus giving an opportunity to target them for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes. This modality also provides a real time opportunity to target the required area while avoiding adjacent vascular and other structures. Therapeutic EUS has found role in management of pancreatic fluid collections, biliary and pancreatic duct drainage in cases of failed endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, drainage of gallbladder, celiac plexus neurolysis/blockage, drainage of mediastinal and intra-abdominal abscesses and collections and in targeted cancer chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Infact, therapeutic EUS has emerged as the therapy of choice for management of pancreatic pseudocysts and recent innovations like fully covered removable metallic stents have improved results in patients with organised necrosis. Similarly, EUS guided drainage of biliary tract and pancreatic duct helps drainage of these systems in patients with failed cannulation, inaccessible papilla as with duodenal/gastric obstruction or surgically altered anatomy. EUS guided gall bladder drainage is a useful emergent procedure in patients with acute cholecystitis who are not fit for surgery. EUS guided celiac plexus neurolysis and blockage is more effective and less morbid vis-à-vis the percutaneous technique. The field of interventional EUS is rapidly advancing and many more interventions are being continuously added. This review focuses on the current status of evidence vis-à-vis the established indications of therapeutic EUS.

New fully covered large-bore wide-flare removable metal stent for drainage of pancreatic fluid collections: results of a multicenter study

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Endoscopic transmural drainage (ETMD) of peripancreatic fluid collections (PFC) is an effective alternative to surgical drainage. Conventional drainage using plastic stents has its limitations. A wide-bore short-length wide flange fully covered self-expandable metallic stent (FCSEMS) has recently been developed. The present study evaluates the efficacy of this new FCSEMS for ETMD of PFC.

METHODS

This was a retrospective, multicenter study. Patients with PFC undergoing endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-guided drainage of PFC using specially designed FCSEMS were included. Parameters evaluated were technical success of stent placement, clinical success as defined by resolution of PFC without any further surgical intervention, ability to carry out endoscopic necrosectomy, complications and feasibility of endoscopic stent removal.

RESULTS

Twenty-one PFC in 19 patients were drained using FCSEMS. Technical and clinical success for drainage was seen in all patients (100%). Endoscopic necrosectomy was carried out in seven (33%) PFC. Complications occurred in two patients (10.5%). Stents could be endoscopically removed in all patients (100%).

CONCLUSIONS

The new specially designed FCSEMS is safe and effective for drainage of PFC. Necrosectomy can be carried out through the stent. Stent can be removed endoscopically at the end of the treatment period.

Efficacy of metal and plastic stents for transmural drainage of pancreatic fluid collections: a systematic review

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Metal stents are being used more frequently for transmural endoscopic drainage of pancreatic fluid collections (PFC) despite lack of data. The present systematic review was conducted to compare the rates of treatment success, adverse events and recurrence between patients undergoing metal versus plastic stent placement for endoscopic transmural drainage of PFC.

METHODS

MEDLINE and EMBASE were searched to identify all published manuscripts that evaluated metal stents for endoscopic transmural drainage of PFC. All published studies from the same period involving plastic stent placement for PFC drainage that included >50 patients were also identified. Main outcome measures were to compare the rates of treatment success, adverse events and recurrence between the metal and plastic stent cohorts.

RESULTS

Seventeen studies (881 patients) met inclusion criteria. There was no difference in overall treatment success between patients treated with plastic and metal stents (81% [95% CI, 77-84%] vs 82% [95% CI, 74-88%]) for both pseudocysts (85% [95% CI, 81-89%] vs 83% [95% CI, 74-89%]) and walled-off necrosis (70% [95% CI, 62-76%] vs 78% [95% CI, 50-93%]). Also, there was no difference in the rates of adverse events (16% [95% CI, 14-39%] vs 23% [95% CI, 16-33%]) or recurrence (10% [95% CI, 8-13%] vs 9% [95% CI, 4-19%]) between plastic and metal stents.

CONCLUSIONS

Current evidence does not support routine placement of metal stents for transmural drainage of PFC. Randomized trials are needed to justify the use of metal stents for PFC drainage.

Endoscopic ultrasound-guided biliary drainage: a review

OPINION STATEMENT

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiography (ERCP) has become the standard tool for diagnosis and treatment of patients with biliary obstruction. However, despite the reported success rate of >90 % in expert centers, the common bile duct may still be occasionally inaccessible due to anatomical or technical issues. Over the past decade, endoscopic ultrasound-guided biliary drainage (EUS-BD) has emerged as an effective alternative over percutaneous transhepatic biliary drainage (PTBD) or surgical bypass for biliary drainage after unsuccessful ERCP. EUS-BD includes rendezvous techniques (EUS-RV), EUS-guided choledochoduodenostomy (EUS-CDS), and EUS-guided hepatogastrostomy (EUS-HGS). Published data demonstrated high success rates especially for EUS-CDS and EUS-HGS. Complication rates, however, are also higher in these two techniques. The indications and anatomical requirements for the three techniques differ and should be considered complementary to each other. Most reported studies only included a small number of patients, and larger-scaled randomized trials are required to establish the efficacy among various EUS techniques and to compare to traditional means of radiological or surgical drainage.

Endoscopic ultrasound guided drainage of pancreatic fluid collections: Assessment of the procedure, technical details and review of the literature

Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) guided drainage of pancreatic fluid collections (PFC) has become increasingly popular and become first line management option in many centers. Use of therapeutic echoendoscopes has greatly increased the applicability of EUS guided transmural drainage. Drainage is indicated in symptomatic PFCs, PFC related infection, bleed, luminal obstruction, fistulization and biliary obstruction. EUS guided transmural drainage of PFCs is preferred in patients with non bulging lesions, portal hypertension, bleeding tendency and in those whom conventional drainage has failed. In the present decade significant progress has been made in minimally invasive endoscopic techniques. There are newer stent designs, access devices and techniques for more efficient drainage of PFCs. In this review, we discuss the EUS guided drainage of PFCs in acute pancreatitis.

Endoscopic extra-cavitary drainage of pancreatic necrosis with fully covered self-expanding metal stents (fcSEMS) and staged lavage with a high-flow water jet system

AIM

To present a novel, less-invasive method of endoscopic drainage (ED) for walled-off pancreatic necrosis (WON).We describe the feasibility, success rate, and complications of combined ED extra-cavitary lavage and debridement of WON using a biliary catheter and high-flow water jet system (water pump).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-guided drainage was performed with insertion of two 7-Fr, 4-cm double pigtail stents. Subsequently a fully covered self-expanding metal stent (fcSEMS) was placed. The key aspect of the debridement was the insertion of a 5-Fr biliary catheter through or along the fcSEMS into the cavity, with ensuing saline lavage using a high-flow water jet system. The patients were then brought back for repeated, planned endoscopic lavages of the WON. No endoscopic intra-cavitary exploration was performed.

RESULTS

A total of 17 patients (15 men, 2 women; mean age 52.6, range 24 - 69; mean American Society of Anesthesiologists [ASA] score of 3) underwent ED of WON with this new method. The mean initial WON diameter was 9.5 cm, range 8 to 26 cm. The total number of ED was 84, range 2 to 13. The mean stenting period was 42.5 days. The mean follow-up was 51 days, range 3 to 370. A resolution of the WON was achieved in 14 patients (82.3 %). There were no major complications associated with this method.

CONCLUSION

ED of complex WON with fcSEMS followed by repeated endoscopic extra-cavitary lavage and debridement using a biliary catheter and high-flow water jet system is a minimally invasive, feasible method with high technical and clinical success and minimal complications.

Safety and efficacy of endoscopic ultrasound-guided drainage of pancreatic fluid collections with lumen-apposing covered self-expanding metal stents

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Plastic stents, placed via endoscopy to drain pancreatic fluid collections (PFCs), require repeat access. Covered metal stents are larger in diameter and can be inserted in a single step, but can migrate. We evaluated the safety and efficacy of a lumen-apposing, covered, self-expanding metal stent (LACSEMS) for PFC drainage.

METHODS

We performed a prospective study of the outcomes of stent placement in 33 patients (18 men; age, 53 ± 14 y; 28 with chronic pancreatitis) with symptomatic pancreatic pseudocysts and walled-off necrosis (≥ 6 cm with ≥ 70% fluid content). Subjects were enrolled at 7 tertiary care centers (6 in the United States and 1 in Europe) from October 2011 through August 2013. Cystenterostomies were created based on endoscopist preference. Safety outcomes included infection, bleeding, perforation, tissue injury, and stent migration. Efficacy end points included LACSEMS placement, patency, and removal, as well as 50% or more reduction in PFCs.

RESULTS

The mean size of the patients' PFCs was 9 ± 3.3 cm. LACSEMSs were placed successfully via endoscopic ultrasound guidance in 30 patients (91%); the remaining 3 patients received 2 double-pigtail stents. One subject could not be evaluated because of a pseudoaneurysm. In the patients receiving LACSEMS, PFCs resolved in 27 of 29 (93%). Overall, PFCs resolved in 30 of 33 patients (91%). Endoscopic debridement through the LACSEMS was conducted in 11 subjects. Complications (15%) included abdominal pain (n = 3), spontaneous stent migration, back pain (n = 1), access-site infection, and stent dislodgement (n = 1).

CONCLUSIONS

LACSEMS were placed successfully in 91% of subjects with PFCs. Overall, 93% had PFC resolution. Advantages of LACSEMSs over other stents include single-step deployment and the ability to perform endoscopic debridement with minimal stent migration. Clinicaltrials.gov: NCT01419769.

Endoscopic management of pancreatic pseudocysts and necrosis

Over the last several years, there have been refinements in the understanding and nomenclature regarding the natural history of acute pancreatitis. Patients with acute pancreatitis frequently develop acute pancreatic collections that, over time, may evolve into pancreatic pseudocysts or walled-off necrosis. Endoscopic management of these local complications of acute pancreatitis continues to evolve. Treatment strategies range from simple drainage of liquefied contents to repeated direct endoscopic necrosectomy of a complex necrotic collection. In patients with chronic pancreatitis, pancreatic pseudocysts may arise as a consequence of pancreatic ductal obstruction that then leads to pancreatic ductal disruption. In this review, we focus on the indications, techniques and outcomes for endoscopic therapy of pancreatic pseudocysts and walled-off necrosis.

Management of pancreatic collections with a novel endoscopically placed fully covered self-expandable metal stent: a national experience (with videos)

BACKGROUND

Recent medical literature on novel lumen-apposing stents for the treatment of pancreatic fluid collections (PFCs) is limited by small numbers, solo operators, and single-center experience.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate a recently developed lumen-apposing, fully covered self-expandable metal stent (FCSEMS) in the management of PFCs.

DESIGN

Retrospective case series.

SETTING

Thirteen tertiary and private health care centers across Australia.

PATIENTS

Forty-seven patients (median age 51 years) who underwent endoscopic management of PFCs.

INTERVENTION

Insertion of FCSEMS after PFC puncture under EUS guidance. A subgroup of 9 patients underwent direct endoscopic necrosectomy.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Technical and clinical success rate, adverse event rate.

RESULTS

The technical success rate was 53 of 54 patients (98.1%), and the initial clinical success rate was 36 of 47 (76.6%), which was sustained for more than 6 months in 34 of 36 (94.4%). Early adverse events included 4 cases (7.4%) of stent migration during direct endoscopic necrosectomy, 4 cases (7.4%) of sepsis, 1 case (1.9%) of bleeding, and 1 case (1.9%) of stent migration into the fistula tract. Late adverse events were 6 (11.1%) spontaneous stent migrations, 3 (5.6%) recurrent stent occlusions, 3 (5.6%) tissue ingrowth/overgrowth, and 2 (3.7%) bleeding into PFC. The majority of stents inserted (48 of 54, 88.9%) and removed (31 of 35, 88.6%) in our study were described by the operator as superior to pigtail stents with regard to ease of use.

LIMITATIONS

Retrospective study.

CONCLUSION

Although FCSEMSs are technically easier to insert and remove compared with traditional pigtail stents, there are significant limitations to the widespread use of FCSEMSs in the management of PFCs. These include cost, adverse events, and lower-than-expected resolution rates.

Endoscopic treatment of large pancreatic fluid collections (PFC) using self-expanding metallic stents (SEMS) - a two-center experience

Background/study aim: During the last several years, endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-guided pancreatic fluid collections' (PFC) drainage has evolved into the preferred drainage technique. Recently, self-expanding metallic stents (SEMS) have been used as an alternative to double pigtail stents, with the advantage of providing a larger diameter fistula, thereby decreasing the risk of early obstruction and also allowing for direct endoscopic exploration of the cavity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the technical and clinical success, safety, and outcome of patients undergoing EUS-guided drainage of complex PFC using SEMS.

PATIENTS/MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was conducted at two tertiary hospitals from January 2010 to January 2013. All patients with PFC referred for endoscopic drainage were enrolled in a prospective database. The inclusion criteria were: (1) patients with pseudocysts or walled-off necrosis based on the revised Atlanta classification; (2) symptomatic patients with thick PFC; (3) PFC that persisted more than 6 weeks; and (4) large PFC diameter (≥ 9 cm). The exclusion criteria consisted of coagulation disorders, PFC bleeding or infection, and failure-to-inform written consent.

RESULTS

A total of 16 patients (9 females, 7 males; mean age 52.6, range 20 - 82) underwent EUS drainage with SEMS. There were 14 cases of pseudocysts and 2 cases of walled-off necrosis. The etiologies of the PFC were mainly gallstones (8 of 16 patients, 50 %) and alcohol (5 of 16 patients, 31 %). Technical success was achieved in 100 % of the cases. All patients had a complete resolution of the PFC.

CONCLUSION

Transmural EUS-guided drainage of complex PFC using SEMS is feasible, appears safe, and is efficacious. However, the exchange of the UC (uncovered)-SEMS for plastic stents is mandatory within 1 week. Future prospective studies, preferably multicenter studies, comparing SEMS versus traditional plastic stents for the drainage of PFC are warranted.

Endoscopic ultrasound-guided gallbladder drainage for the management of acute cholecystitis (with video)

Endoscopic ultrasound-guided gallbladder drainage (EUS-GBD) has been introduced as an alternative to percutaneous transhepatic gallbladder drainage for the treatment of acute cholecystitis in non-surgical candidates. A systematic review of the English language literature through PubMed search until June 2014 was conducted. One hundred and fifty-five patients with acute cholecystitis treated with EUS-GBD in eight studies and 12 case reports, and two patients with EUS-GBD for other causes were identified. Overall, technical success was obtained in 153 patients (97.45%) and clinical success in 150 (99.34%) patients with acute cholecystitis. Adverse events developed in less than 8% of patients, all of them managed conservatively. EUS-GBD has been performed with plastic stents, nasobiliary drainage tubes, standard or modified tubular self-expandable metal stents (SEMS) and lumen-apposing metal stents (LAMS) by different authors with apparently similar outcomes. No comparison studies between stent types for EUS-GBD have been reported. EUS-GBD is a promising novel alternative intervention for the treatment of acute cholecystitis in high surgical risk patients. Feasibility, safety and efficacy in published studies from expert centers are very high compared to currently available alternatives. Further studies are needed to establish the safety and long-term outcomes of this procedure in other practice settings before EUS-GBD can be widely disseminated.

Endoscopic Ultrasound-Guided Treatment beyond Drainage: Hemostasis, Anastomosis, and Others

Since the introduction of endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) in the 1990s, it has evolved from a primarily diagnostic modality into an instrument that can be used in various therapeutic interventions. EUS-guided fine-needle injection was initially described for celiac plexus neurolysis. By using the fundamentals of this method, drainage techniques emerged for the biliary and pancreatic ducts, fluid collections, and abscesses. More recently, EUS has been used for ablative techniques and injection therapies for patients with for gastrointestinal malignancies. As the search for minimally invasive techniques continued, EUS-guided hemostasis methods have also been described. The technical advances in EUS-guided therapies may appear to be limitless; however, in many instances, these procedures have been described only in small case series. More data are required to determine the efficacy and safety of these techniques, and new accessories will be needed to facilitate their implementation into practice.

Endoscopic transluminal drainage and necrosectomy by using a novel, through-the-scope, fully covered, large-bore esophageal metal stent: preliminary experience in 10 patients

BACKGROUND

Interventions for necrotizing pancreatitis have undergone a recent paradigm shift toward minimally invasive techniques, including endoscopic transluminal necrosectomy (ETN). The optimal stent for endoscopic transmural drainage remains unsettled.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate a novel large-bore, fully covered metal through-the-scope (TTS) esophageal stent for cystenterostomy in large walled-off necrosis (WON).

DESIGN

Retrospective case series.

SETTING

Single tertiary care academic center.

PATIENTS

Ten patients with large (>10 cm) WON collections who underwent endoscopic transmural drainage and ETN.

INTERVENTION

Initial cystenterostomy was performed by using EUS, and in the same session, a TTS (18 × 60 mm), fully covered esophageal stent was placed to create a wide-bore fistula into the cavity. In 1 or more later sessions, the stent was removed, and ETN was performed as needed.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Technical and clinical success rates and adverse events.

RESULTS

The TTS stent was successfully deployed at the initial cystogastrostomy in all 10 patients. All patients had large WON (median size 17 cm, range 11-30 cm) and underwent intervention at a median of 30 days (range 12-117 days) after onset of acute pancreatitis. Resolution of WON was achieved in 9 of the 10 patients (90%) after a median of 3 endoscopic sessions. There were no early adverse events. Late adverse events occurred in 3 patients (30%); worsening of infection from stent migration and occlusion of cystogastrostomy (2 patients), and fatal pseudoaneurysmal bleeding from erosion of infected necrosis into a major artery distant from the stent (1 patient). The stent was easily removed in all the cases after resolution or improvement of the necrotic cavity.

LIMITATIONS

Retrospective, single-center evaluation of a small number of cases. No comparative arm to determine the relative efficacy or cost-effectiveness of these stents compared with conventional plastic stents.

CONCLUSIONS

Endoscopic therapy using a large-bore TTS, fully covered esophageal stent is feasible for use in the treatment of large WON. Further studies are needed to validate these findings.

Endoscopic ultrasound-guided treatments: are we getting evidence based--a systematic review

The continued need to develop less invasive alternatives to surgical and radiologic interventions has driven the development of endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-guided treatments. These include EUS-guided drainage of pancreatic fluid collections, EUS-guided necrosectomy, EUS-guided cholangiography and biliary drainage, EUS-guided pancreatography and pancreatic duct drainage, EUS-guided gallbladder drainage, EUS-guided drainage of abdominal and pelvic fluid collections, EUS-guided celiac plexus block and celiac plexus neurolysis, EUS-guided pancreatic cyst ablation, EUS-guided vascular interventions, EUS-guided delivery of antitumoral agents and EUS-guided fiducial placement and brachytherapy. However these procedures are technically challenging and require expertise in both EUS and interventional endoscopy, such as endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography and gastrointestinal stenting. We undertook a systematic review to record the entire body of literature accumulated over the past 2 decades on EUS-guided interventions with the objective of performing a critical appraisal of published articles, based on the classification of studies according to levels of evidence, in order to assess the scientific progress made in this field.

Endoscopic ultrasound-guided transluminal drainage for peripancreatic fluid collections: where are we now?

Endoscopic drainage for pancreatic and peripancreatic fluid collections (PFCs) has been increasingly used as a minimally invasive alternative to surgical or percutaneous drainage. Recently, endoscopic ultrasound-guided transluminal drainage (EUS-TD) has become the standard of care and a safe procedure for nonsurgical PFC treatment. EUS-TD ensures a safe puncture, avoiding intervening blood vessels. Single or multiple plastic stents (combined with a nasocystic catheter) were used for the treatment of PFCs for EUS-TD. More recently, the use of covered self-expandable metallic stents (CSEMSs) has provided a safer and more efficient approach route for internal drainage. We focused our review on the best approach and stent to use in endoscopic drainage for PFCs. We reviewed studies of EUS-TD for PFCs based on the original Atlanta Classification, including case reports, case series, and previous review articles. Data on clinical outcomes and adverse events were collected retrospectively. A total of 93 patients underwent EUS-TD of pancreatic pseudocysts using CSEMSs. The treatment success and adverse event rates were 94.6% and 21.1%, respectively. The majority of complications were of mild severity and resolved with conservative therapy. A total of 56 patients underwent EUS-TD using CSEMSs for pancreatic abscesses or infected walled-off necroses. The treatment success and adverse event rates were 87.8% and 9.5%, respectively. EUS-TD can be performed safely and efficiently for PFC treatment. Larger diameter CSEMSs without additional fistula tract dilation for the passage of a standard scope are needed to access and drain for PFCs with solid debris.

Endoscopic ultrasound-guided endoluminal drainage of the gallbladder

For patients with acute cholecystitis who are not suitable for surgery, endoscopic ultrasound-guided endoluminal drainage of the gallbladder (EUS-GBD) has been developed to overcome the limitations of percutaneous transhepatic gallbladder drainage when endoscopic transpapillary gallbladder drainage is not feasible. In the present review we have summarized the studies describing EUS-GBD. Indications, techniques, accessories, endoprostheses, limitations and complications reported in the different studies are discussed. There were 90 documented cases in the literature. The overall reported technical success rate was 87/90 (96.7%). All patients with technical success were clinically successful. A total of 11/90 (12.2%) patients had complications including pneumoperitoneum, bile peritonitis and stent migration. The advantage of EUS-GBD is its ability to provide gallbladder drainage especially in situations where percutaneous or transpapillary drainage is not feasible or is technically challenging. It also provides the option of internal drainage and the ability to carry out therapeutic maneuvers via cholecystoscopy.

Endoscopic interventions for necrotizing pancreatitis

Interventions for necrotizing pancreatitis have undergone a paradigm shift away from open surgical necrosectomy and toward minimally invasive techniques, with endoscopic transmural drainage (ETD) and necrosectomy emerging as principle forms of treatment. Recent multicenter studies, randomized trials, evidence-based guidelines, and consensus statements have endorsed the safety and efficacy of endoscopic and other minimally invasive techniques for the treatment of walled-off necrosis. A comprehensive review of indications, standard and novel approaches, outcomes, complications, and controversies regarding ETD and necrosectomy is presented. Given the inherent challenges and associated risks, endoscopic techniques for the management of necrotizing pancreatitis should be performed at specialized multidisciplinary centers by expert endoscopists well versed in the management of necrotizing pancreatitis.

Pancreatic fluid collection drainage by endoscopic ultrasound: new perspectives

Since the introduction of endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS), many centers have utilized this imaging modality for transmural pancreatic fluid collection (PFC) drainage. The expanded use of EUS has resulted in increased safety and efficacy of endoscopic PFC drainage. The major procedural steps include EUS-guided transgastric or transduodenal fistula creation into the PFC, and stent placement or nasocystic drain deployment to decompress the collection. In this and other applications, EUS has become a major therapeutic advancement in the field of endoscopy and has figured in myriad diagnostic applications. Recent research indicates a number of situations in which EUS-guided PFC drainage is appropriate. These include unusual location of the collection, small window of entry, non-bulging collections, coagulopathy, intervening varices, or failed conventional transmural drainage. In this study, we discuss the EUS-guided technique and review current literatures.

EUS-guided choledochoduodenostomy for malignant distal biliary obstruction palliation: an article review

The EUS-guided biliary drainage is a new tool for the palliation of distal obstructive biliary lesions. The EUS-guided access, which creates a fistulization between the duodenal bulb and distal common biliary duct, is an effective method to relieve jaundice and has low morbidity and mortality, in patients with distal biliary obstruction (pancreatic mass or papillary câncer). This technique is called choledochoduodenostomy and is presented promptly in this article. The EUS-guided biliary drainage should be made within protocol conditions and done by very experienced endosonographers.

A kit for eus-guided access and drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts: efficacy in a porcine model

OBJECTIVE

Transluminal pseudocyst drainage with currently available tools remains technically challenging, time consuming and limited to fluid collections adherent to the GI tract. Multiple tools and steps are still required to achieve pseudocyst drainage. We evaluated a novel kit to facilitate endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS)-guided access, drainage and rapid decompression in a porcine model.

METHODS

The kit consists of the NAVIX access device and the AXIOS stent delivery system. The NAVIX contains an inner trocar for puncture and an outer dual balloon catheter for anchorage and dilation. The AXIOS stent is a fully covered dual flanged stent. Both are inserted through the working channel of a curved linear array echoendoscope. In a porcine model, a gallbladder was used as a proxy for a pseudocyst.

RESULTS

Six Yorkshire pigs underwent this procedure successfully without complication and 3 of them were kept alive. After a 4-week implantation period, the AXIOS stents were removed easily using a snare and the 3 animals were observed for an additional 4 weeks. The stents were well-tolerated by the stomach and gallbladder tissues, as confirmed by weekly endoscopic inspection, gross necropsy and histopathology.

CONCLUSION

EUS-guided transluminal access and drainage of the porcine gallbladder was technical feasible using a novel kit. This kit has the potential to simplify, streamline, and improve the safety of pancreatic pseudocyst drainage.

A comparative evaluation of outcomes of endoscopic versus percutaneous drainage for symptomatic pancreatic pseudocysts

BACKGROUND

Endoscopic drainage (ED) and percutaneous drainage (PD) have largely replaced surgical drainage as the initial approach for symptomatic pseudocysts. However, there are few studies comparing ED and PD.

OBJECTIVE

To compare the outcomes of ED and PD for symptomatic pseudocysts.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING

Academic center.

PATIENTS

Adult patients with symptomatic pseudocysts within ≤ 1 cm of the gastric or duodenal wall who underwent ED or PD between 1993 and 2011. Patients with walled-off pancreatic necrosis were excluded.

INTERVENTION

ED or PD.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Rates of technical success, procedural adverse events, clinical success, reinterventions, and failure. Other outcomes included the length of hospital stay and number of follow-up abdominal imaging studies.

RESULTS

There were 81 patients, 41 who underwent ED and 40 who underwent PD, with no differences in age, sex, and comorbidity between the 2 groups. There were no differences in the rates of technical success (90.2% vs 97.5%; P = .36), adverse events (14.6% vs 15%; P = .96), and clinical success (70.7% vs 72.5%; P = .86) between ED and PD, respectively. Patients who underwent PD had higher rates of reintervention (42.5% vs 9.8%; P = .001), longer length of hospital stay (14.8 ± 14.4 vs 6.5 ± 6.7 days; P = .001), and median number [quartiles] of follow-up abdominal imaging studies (6 [3.25, 10] vs 4 [2.5, 6]; P = .02) compared with patients who underwent ED.

LIMITATIONS

Single center, retrospective study.

CONCLUSION

ED and PD have similar clinical success rates for symptomatic pseudocysts. However, PD is associated with significantly higher rates of reintervention, longer length of hospital stay, and increased number of follow-up abdominal imaging studies.

A newly designed fully covered metal stent for lumen apposition in EUS-guided drainage and access: a feasibility study (with videos)

BACKGROUND

A lumen-apposing stent can be used effectively under endosonographic guidance.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate a newly designed, fully covered self-expandable metal stent with folding anchoring flanges for lumen apposition assembled on a conventional delivery system.

DESIGN

Retrospective case series and animal study.

SETTING

Tertiary care academic medical centers.

SUBJECTS

Six pigs for animal study and 7 patients, 3 of whom underwent endoscopic drainage for acute cholecystitis (AC) and 4 for pancreatic fluid collection (PFC).

INTERVENTION

Stent deployment under EUS guidance after puncturing, passage of an endoscope through the stent into the gallbladder (GB), or PFC with conventional endoscopic procedures.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Technical and clinical success, adverse events, and removability.

RESULTS

In the animal study, the stent was successfully inserted and deployed in the GB via a transgastric approach under EUS guidance without adverse events in all 6 pigs. Contrast injection demonstrated the absence of leakage. Cholecystoscopy with enhanced endoscopy was performed successfully in all animals after stent placement. All stents were intact and were removed successfully at 4 weeks. GB firmly adhered to the stomach with an intact cholecystogastric tract on necropsy and histopathology. The stents were successfully deployed without adverse effects in 7 patients. AC or PFC was resolved after stent placement in all patients. Endoscopic procedures were possible through the stent. Stent migration was not observed. The stent was successfully removed from the 4 patients with PFC after complete resolution.

LIMITATIONS

Small sample size, retrospective study.

CONCLUSIONS

Transenteric drainage and endoscopic intervention by using a novel fully covered self-expandable metal stent for lumen apposition under EUS guidance is feasible for the management of AC and PFC. Further study is warranted.

Endoscopic drainage of pseudocysts

During the last decade, great progress has been made in minimally invasive endoscopic techniques. For pancreatic pseudocysts (PPCs), endoscopic drainage has become the first-line therapeutic option. Recent advances in therapeutic endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-related techniques have focused on EUS-guided transmural drainage, which is now replacing the conventional endoscopy-guided transmural drainage. While transmural drainage is usually performed using multiple plastic stents with or without a nasocystic drain, fully covered self-expandable metal stents are now being used with increasing frequency. In this review, we discuss some of the controversies related to the endoscopic drainage of PPCs.

Endoscopic transmural drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts: technical challenges in the resource poor setting

Although surgical drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts has been superseded by less invasive options, the requirement for specialized equipment, technical expertise, and consumables limits the options available in low resource settings. We describe the challenges experienced during endoscopic transmural drainage in a low resource setting and the methods used to overcome these barriers. Despite operating in a low resource environment, endoscopic drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts can be incorporated into our armamentarium with minimal change to the existing hardware. Careful patient selection by a dedicated multidisciplinary team should be observed in order to achieve good outcomes.

Pancreatic fluid collection drainage by endoscopic ultrasound: an update

Endoscopic management of symptomatic pancreatic fluid collections (PFCs) is now considered to be first line therapy. Expanded use of endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) techniques has resulted in increased applicability, safety, and efficacy of endoscopic transluminal PFC drainage. Steps include EUS-guided trangastric or transduodenal fistula creation into the PFC followed by stent placement or nasocystic drain deployment in order to decompress the collection. With the remarkable improvement in the available accessories and stents and development of exchange free access device; EUS drainage techniques have become simpler and less time consuming. The use of self-expandable metal stents with modifications to drain PFC has helped in overcoming some previously encountered challenges. PFCs considered suitable for endoscopic drainage include collection present for greater than 4 weeks, possessing a well-formed wall, position accessible endoscopically and located within 1 cm of the duodenal or gastric walls. Indications for EUS-guided drainage have been increasing which include unusual location of the collection, small window of entry, nonbulging collections, coagulopathy, intervening varices, failed conventional transmural drainage, indeterminate adherence of PFC to the luminal wall or suspicion of malignancy. In this article, we present a review of literature to date and discuss the recent developments in EUS-guided PFC drainage.

New fully-covered self-expandable metal stent for endoscopic ultrasonography-guided intervention in infectious walled-off pancreatic necrosis (with video)

Endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS)-guided pancreatic pseudocyst drainage using a self-expandable metal stent (SEMS) has been reported for satisfactory drainage and endoscopic necrosectomy. Here, we described an interesting case in which successful endoscopic therapy was performed using a new SEMS in infectious walled-off pancreatic necrosis.