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Masood F, Yasin T, Bukhari H, Mujahid M. Characterization and application of roxithromycin loaded cyclodextrin based nanoparticles for treatment of multidrug resistant bacteria. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2015; 61:1-7. [PMID: 26838816 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2015.11.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Revised: 10/29/2015] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
An outbreak of infections with a high mortality rate caused by multidrug resistant (MDR) bacteria is one of the biggest health challenges globally. A class IV drug, roxithromycin (ROX), has poor solubility. In this study, ROX was first encapsulated in the cavity of each of the β-cyclodextrin (βCD) and hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HPβCD). Then, each of the resulting βCD-ROX inclusion complex and HPβCD-ROX inclusion complex were separately loaded into poly-(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) to synthesize βCD-ROX/PLGA and HPβCD-ROX/PLGA nanoparticles (NPs). Blank and ROX loaded PLGA (ROX-PLGA) NPs were also prepared. The loading efficiency of ROX is comparatively high for HPβCD-ROX/PLGA NPs in comparison to the βCD-ROX/PLGA NPs and ROX-PLGA NPs. All designed formulations showed significant (P<0.0001) antibacterial activity against the selected MDR bacterial strains. In a nutshell, this study demonstrated a great therapeutic potential of the above-mentioned delivery systems for treatment of MDR bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farha Masood
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT), Islamabad, Pakistan.
| | - Tariq Yasin
- Department of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Habib Bukhari
- Department of Biosciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT), Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Mujahid
- School of Chemicals & Materials Engineering (SCME), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
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Double emulsion solvent evaporation techniques used for drug encapsulation. Int J Pharm 2015; 496:173-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2015.10.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 256] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2015] [Revised: 10/21/2015] [Accepted: 10/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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53
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Maleki Dizaj S, Lotfipour F, Barzegar-Jalali M, Zarrintan MH, Adibkia K. Box-Behnken experimental design for preparation and optimization of ciprofloxacin hydrochloride-loaded CaCO3 nanoparticles. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2015.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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54
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Vembu S, Pazhamalai S, Gopalakrishnan M. Potential antibacterial activity of triazine dendrimer: Synthesis and controllable drug release properties. Bioorg Med Chem 2015; 23:4561-4566. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2015.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2015] [Revised: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 06/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Sirivisoot S, Harrison BS. Magnetically stimulated ciprofloxacin release from polymeric microspheres entrapping iron oxide nanoparticles. Int J Nanomedicine 2015; 10:4447-58. [PMID: 26185446 PMCID: PMC4501354 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s82830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
To extend the external control capability of drug release, iron oxide nanoparticles (NPs) encapsulated into polymeric microspheres were used as magnetic media to stimulate drug release using an alternating magnetic field. Chemically synthesized iron oxide NPs, maghemite or hematite, and the antibiotic ciprofloxacin were encapsulated together within polycaprolactone microspheres. The polycaprolactone microspheres entrapping ciprofloxacin and magnetic NPs could be triggered for immediate drug release by magnetic stimulation at a maximum value of 40%. Moreover, the microspheres were cytocompatible with fibroblasts in vitro with a cell viability percentage of more than 100% relative to a nontreated control after 24 hours of culture. Macrophage cell cultures showed no signs of increased inflammatory responses after in vitro incubation for 56 hours. Treatment of Staphylococcus aureus with the magnetic microspheres under an alternating (isolating) magnetic field increased bacterial inhibition further after 2 days and 5 days in a broth inhibition assay. The findings of the present study indicate that iron oxide NPs, maghemite and hematite, can be used as media for stimulation by an external magnetic energy to activate immediate drug release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sirinrath Sirivisoot
- Biological Engineering Program, Faculty of Engineering, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Benjamin S Harrison
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
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Phuengkham H, Nasongkla N. Development of antibacterial coating on silicone surface via chlorhexidine-loaded nanospheres. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE. MATERIALS IN MEDICINE 2015; 26:78. [PMID: 25631275 DOI: 10.1007/s10856-015-5418-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2014] [Accepted: 11/01/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are the most common type of hospital-acquired infection which cause significant morbidity and mortality. Antibacterial urinary devices to prevent UTIs are in great demand, while the problem of releasing antibacterials is still limited by duration of antibacterial release and hinders their clinical applications. This study investigated a new approach to sustain release of chlorhexidine (CHX) from urinary devices by coating of chlorhexidine-loaded nanospheres (CHX-NPs) on the surface. CHX-NPs were prepared by high-pressure emulsification-solvent evaporation technique that provided the size of nanospheres at 198.8 nm and the drug loading content at 5.6%. These nanospheres were spray-coated on silicone surface with reproducible and predictable amount of CHX. Release studies conducted in artificial urine to mimic in vivo condition showed that suitable dose of CHX was released in a sustained manner within a couple of weeks. Additionally, CHX-NPs showed antibacterial activity against common bacteria causing UTIs up to 15 days, which is threefold longer than that of physical mixing between CHX and polymer. Results from this study suggest possible applications of CHX-NPs in coating the surface of ureteral-relating devices for sustained antibacterial release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hathaichanok Phuengkham
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Mahidol University, 25/25 Puttamonthon 4 Salaya, Nakhon Pathom, 73170, Thailand
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Kalhapure RS, Suleman N, Mocktar C, Seedat N, Govender T. Nanoengineered drug delivery systems for enhancing antibiotic therapy. J Pharm Sci 2014; 104:872-905. [PMID: 25546108 DOI: 10.1002/jps.24298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2014] [Revised: 11/07/2014] [Accepted: 11/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Formulation scientists are recognizing nanoengineered drug delivery systems as an effective strategy to overcome limitations associated with antibiotic drug therapy. Antibiotics encapsulated into nanodelivery systems will contribute to improved management of patients with various infectious diseases and to overcoming the serious global burden of antibiotic resistance. An extensive review of several antibiotic-loaded nanocarriers that have been formulated to target drugs to infectious sites, achieve controlled drug release profiles, and address formulation challenges, such as low-drug entrapment efficiencies, poor solubility and stability is presented in this paper. The physicochemical properties and the in vitro/in vivo performances of various antibiotic-loaded delivery systems, such as polymeric nanoparticles, micelles, dendrimers, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles, nanohybirds, nanofibers/scaffolds, nanosheets, nanoplexes, and nanotubes/horn/rods and nanoemulsions, are highlighted and evaluated. Future studies that will be essential to optimize formulation and commercialization of these antibiotic-loaded nanosystems are also identified. The review presented emphasizes the significant formulation progress achieved and potential that novel nanoengineered antibiotic drug delivery systems have for enhancing the treatment of patients with a range of infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul S Kalhapure
- Discipline of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 4000, South Africa
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58
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Piotrowska U, Sobczak M. Enzymatic polymerization of cyclic monomers in ionic liquids as a prospective synthesis method for polyesters used in drug delivery systems. Molecules 2014; 20:1-23. [PMID: 25546617 PMCID: PMC6272625 DOI: 10.3390/molecules20010001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2014] [Accepted: 12/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Biodegradable or bioresorbable polymers are commonly used in various pharmaceutical fields (e.g., as drug delivery systems, therapeutic systems or macromolecular drug conjugates). Polyesters are an important class of polymers widely utilized in pharmacy due to their biodegradability and biocompatibility features. In recent years, there has been increased interest in enzyme-catalyzed ring-opening polymerization (e-ROP) of cyclic esters as an alternative method of preparation of biodegradable or bioresorbable polymers. Ionic liquids (ILs) have been presented as green solvents in enzymatic ring-opening polymerization. The activity, stability, selectivity of enzymes in ILs and the ability to catalyze polyester synthesis under these conditions are discussed. Overall, the review demonstrates that e-ROP of lactones or lactides could be an effective method for the synthesis of useful biomedical polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urszula Piotrowska
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1, Warsaw 02-097, Poland.
| | - Marcin Sobczak
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1, Warsaw 02-097, Poland.
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Merchant Z, Taylor KMG, Stapleton P, Razak SA, Kunda N, Alfagih I, Sheikh K, Saleem IY, Somavarapu S. Engineering hydrophobically modified chitosan for enhancing the dispersion of respirable microparticles of levofloxacin. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2014; 88:816-29. [PMID: 25305582 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2014.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2014] [Revised: 09/15/2014] [Accepted: 09/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The potential of amphiphilic chitosan formed by grafting octanoyl chains on the chitosan backbone for pulmonary delivery of levofloxacin has been studied. The success of polymer synthesis was confirmed using FT-IR and NMR, whilst antimicrobial activity was assessed against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Highly dispersible dry powders for delivery as aerosols were prepared with different amounts of chitosan and octanoyl chitosan to study the effect of hydrophobic modification and varying concentration of polymer on aerosolization of drug. Powders were prepared by spray-drying from an aqueous solution containing levofloxacin and chitosan/amphiphilic octanoyl chitosan. l-leucine was also used to assess its effect on aerosolization. Following spray-drying, the resultant powders were characterized using scanning electron microscopy, laser diffraction, dynamic light scattering, HPLC, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis and X-ray powder diffraction. The in vitro aerosolization profile was determined using a Next Generation Impactor, whilst in vitro antimicrobial assessment was performed using MIC assay. Microparticles of chitosan have the property of mucoadhesion leading to potential increased residence time in the pulmonary mucus, making it important to test the toxicity of these formulations. In-vitro cytotoxicity evaluation using MTT assay was performed on A549 cell line to determine the toxicity of formulations and hence feasibility of use. The MTT assay confirmed that the polymers and the formulations were non-cytotoxic. Hydrophobically modifying chitosan showed significantly lower MIC (4-fold) than the commercial chitosan against P. aeruginosa. The powders generated were of suitable aerodynamic size for inhalation having a mass median aerodynamic diameter less than 4.5μm for formulations containing octanoyl chitosan. These highly dispersible powders have minimal moisture adsorption and hence an emitted dose of more than 90% and a fine particle fraction (FPF) of 52%. Powders with non-modified chitosan showed lower dispersibility, with an emitted dose of 72% and FPF of 20%, as a result of high moisture adsorption onto the chitosan matrix leading to cohesiveness and subsequently decreased dispersibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Merchant
- University College London School of Pharmacy, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kevin M G Taylor
- University College London School of Pharmacy, London, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Stapleton
- University College London School of Pharmacy, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sana A Razak
- University College London School of Pharmacy, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nitesh Kunda
- School of Pharmacy & Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Iman Alfagih
- School of Pharmacy & Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom; Department of Pharmaceutics, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Khalid Sheikh
- University College London School of Pharmacy, London, United Kingdom
| | - Imran Y Saleem
- School of Pharmacy & Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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60
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Phuengkham H, Teeranachaideekul V, Chulasiri M, Nasongkla N. Preparation and optimization of chlorophene-loaded nanospheres as controlled release antimicrobial delivery systems. Pharm Dev Technol 2014; 21:8-13. [DOI: 10.3109/10837450.2014.959180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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61
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Singh B, Vuddanda PR, M.R. V, Kumar V, Saxena PS, Singh S. Cefuroxime axetil loaded solid lipid nanoparticles for enhanced activity against S. aureus biofilm. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2014; 121:92-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.03.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2013] [Revised: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 03/26/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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62
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Warsi MH, Anwar M, Garg V, Jain GK, Talegaonkar S, Ahmad FJ, Khar RK. Dorzolamide-loaded PLGA/vitamin E TPGS nanoparticles for glaucoma therapy: Pharmacoscintigraphy study and evaluation of extended ocular hypotensive effect in rabbits. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2014; 122:423-431. [PMID: 25159319 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2014] [Revised: 06/13/2014] [Accepted: 07/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Poor drug penetration and rapid clearance after topical instillation of a drug formulation into the eyes are the major causes for the lower ocular bioavailability from conventional eye drops. Along with this, poor encapsulation efficiency of hydrophilic drug in polymeric nanoparticles remains a major formulation challenge. Taking this perspective into consideration, dorzolamide (DZ)-loaded PLGA nanoparticles were developed employing two different emulsifiers (PVA and vitamin E TPGS) and the effects of various formulation and process variables on particle size and encapsulation efficiency were assessed. Nanoparticles emulsified with vitamin E TPGS (DZ-T-NPs) were found to possess enhanced drug encapsulation (59.8±6.1%) as compared to those developed with PVA as emulsifier (DZ-P-NPs). Transcorneal permeation study revealed a significant enhancement in permeation (1.8-2.5 fold) as compared to solution. In addition, ex vivo biodistribution study showed a higher concentration of drug in the aqueous humour (1.5-2.3 fold). Histological and IR-camera studies proved the non-irritant potential of the formulations. Pharmacoscintigraphic studies revealed the reduced corneal clearance, as well as naso-lachrymal drainage in comparison to drug solution. Furthermore, efficacy study revealed that DZ-P-NPs and DZ-T-NPs significantly reduced the intraocular pressure by 22.81% and 29.12%, respectively, after a single topical instillation into the eye.
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Affiliation(s)
- Musarrat H Warsi
- Nanoformulation Research Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hamdard University, New Delhi, India.
| | - Mohammed Anwar
- Nanoformulation Research Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hamdard University, New Delhi, India
| | - Vaidehi Garg
- Nanoformulation Research Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hamdard University, New Delhi, India
| | - Gaurav K Jain
- Nanoformulation Research Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hamdard University, New Delhi, India
| | - Sushama Talegaonkar
- Nanoformulation Research Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hamdard University, New Delhi, India
| | - Farhan J Ahmad
- Nanoformulation Research Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hamdard University, New Delhi, India.
| | - Roop K Khar
- Nanoformulation Research Lab, Faculty of Pharmacy, Hamdard University, New Delhi, India; B. S. Anangpuria Institute of Pharmacy, Faridabad, Haryana, India
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Grumezescu V, Holban AM, Grumezescu AM, Socol G, Ficai A, Vasile BS, Truscă R, Bleotu C, Lazar V, Chifiriuc CM, Mogosanu GD. Usnic acid-loaded biocompatible magnetic PLGA-PVA microsphere thin films fabricated by MAPLE with increased resistance to staphylococcal colonization. Biofabrication 2014; 6:035002. [PMID: 24722318 DOI: 10.1088/1758-5082/6/3/035002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Due to their persistence and resistance to the current therapeutic approaches, Staphylococcus aureus biofilm-associated infections represent a major cause of morbidity and mortality in the hospital environment. Since (+)-usnic acid (UA), a secondary lichen metabolite, possesses antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive cocci, including S. aureus, the aim of this study was to load magnetic polylactic-co-glycolic acid-polyvinyl alcohol (PLGA-PVA) microspheres with UA, then to obtain thin coatings using matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation and to quantitatively assess the capacity of the bio-nano-active modified surface to control biofilm formation by S. aureus, using a culture-based assay. The UA-loaded microspheres inhibited both the initial attachment of S. aureus to the coated surfaces, as well as the development of mature biofilms. In vitro bioevalution tests performed on the fabricated thin films revealed great biocompatibility, which may endorse them as competitive candidates for the development of improved non-toxic surfaces resistant to S. aureus colonization and as scaffolds for stem cell cultivation and tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Grumezescu
- Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, University Politehnica of Bucharest, Polizu Street no 1-7, 011061 Bucharest, Romania. Lasers Department, Plasma and Radiation Physics, National Institute for Lasers, PO Box MG-36, Bucharest-Magurele, Romania
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Pokharkar V, Patil V, Mandpe L. Engineering of polymer-surfactant nanoparticles of doxycycline hydrochloride for ocular drug delivery. Drug Deliv 2014; 22:955-68. [PMID: 24601827 PMCID: PMC11132597 DOI: 10.3109/10717544.2014.893381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2013] [Revised: 02/07/2014] [Accepted: 02/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
CONTEXT Physiologic barriers of the eye, short precorneal drug residence time and poor corneal penetration are the few reasons for reduced ocular bioavailability. OBJECTIVE This study was aimed to develop novel polymer-surfactant nanoparticles of hydrophilic drug doxycycline hydrochloride (DXY) to improve precorneal residence time and drug penetration. MATERIALS AND METHODS Nanoparticles were formulated using emulsion cross-linking method and the formulation was optimized using factorial design. The prepared formulation was characterized for particle size, ζ potential, encapsulation efficiency, in vitro drug release and ex vivo drug diffusion studies. The antibacterial activity studies were also carried out against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus using the cup-plate method. In vivo eye irritation study was carried out by a modified Draize test in rabbits. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The particle size was found to be in the range of 331-850 nm. About 45-80% of the drug was found to be encapsulated in the nanoparticles. In vitro release demonstrated sustained release profile. Lower flux values in case of nanoparticles as compared to DXY pure drug solution in ex vivo diffusion studies confirmed the sustained release. The nanoparticles were found to be significantly effective (p < 0.001) than DXY aqueous solution due to sustained release of doxycycline from nanoparticles in both the E. coli and S. aureus strains. The formulation was found to be stable over entire stability period. CONCLUSION The developed formulation is safe and suitable for sustained ocular drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Varsha Pokharkar
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Poona College of Pharmacy, Bharati Vidyapeeth University, Pune, Maharashtra, India
| | - Vikram Patil
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Poona College of Pharmacy, Bharati Vidyapeeth University, Pune, Maharashtra, India
| | - Leenata Mandpe
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Poona College of Pharmacy, Bharati Vidyapeeth University, Pune, Maharashtra, India
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Sonam, Chaudhary H, Arora V, Kholi K, Kumar V. Effect of Physicochemical Properties of Biodegradable Polymers on Nano Drug Delivery. POLYM REV 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/15583724.2013.828751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Mobarak DH, Salah S, Elkheshen SA. Formulation of ciprofloxacin hydrochloride loaded biodegradable nanoparticles: optimization of technique and process variables. Pharm Dev Technol 2013; 19:891-900. [PMID: 24032531 DOI: 10.3109/10837450.2013.836293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA 502 H) nanoparticles incorporating ciprofloxacin HCl (CP) were prepared by double emulsion solvent diffusion technique. METHODS The influence of the application of probe sonication besides the high pressure homogenization in the preparation of the secondary emulsion and its application during the solidification step were studied. Their effect on the particle size, Zeta potential and the percent encapsulation efficiency of the drug (EE %) were investigated. The effect of the addition of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) during the preparation of the primary emulsion was studied. Moreover, the effect of the addition of 0.1 M sodium chloride and/or adjusting the external and extracting phases to pH 7.4 were investigated. The selected formula was examined using IR, X-ray, DSC and SEM and in vitro drug release. RESULTS These formulations showed an appropriate particle size ranges between 135.7-187.85 nm, a mean zeta potential ranging from -0.839 to -6.81 mV and a mean EE% which ranged from 35% to 69%. CONCLUSION The presented data revealed the superiority of using probe sonication besides high pressure homogenization during the formation of secondary emulsion. Moreover, the results indicated that the tested factors had a pronounced significant effect on the EE%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doaa H Mobarak
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University , Cairo , Egypt and
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Osman R, Kan PL, Awad G, Mortada N, EL-Shamy AE, Alpar O. Spray dried inhalable ciprofloxacin powder with improved aerosolisation and antimicrobial activity. Int J Pharm 2013; 449:44-58. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2013.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2013] [Revised: 03/20/2013] [Accepted: 04/07/2013] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Poly[LA-(Glc-Leu)] copolymer as a carrier for ocular delivery of ciprofloxacin: formulation, characterization and in vivo biocompatibility study. Ther Deliv 2013; 4:553-65. [DOI: 10.4155/tde.13.29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Ciprofloxacin hydrochloride-encapsulated poly[LA-(Glc-Leu)] copolymeric nanoparticles were prepared to provide sustained release and ameliorate shortcomings associated with eye drops. Methods: Poly[LA-(Glc-Leu)] copolymer was synthesized by ring opening copolymerization of l-lactide with a cyclodepsipetide. Ciprofloxacin hydrochloride-loaded polymeric nanoparticles were prepared by double emulsification-solvent evaporation technique with emphasis on optimization of different process and formulation variables. Results: Optimized formulation showed encapsulation efficiency of approximately 63.08 ± 5.88% and a positive zeta potential of +17.46 mV. Scanning electron microscope study revealed the spherical shape of the nanoparticles with a particle size 300–400 nm. In vitro drug-release studies showed sustained release for 24 h with biphasic release pattern. In vivo ocular tolerability study in rabbits demonstrated no signs of toxicity or irritation parallel to the results obtained with the marketed formulation. Conclusion: Poly[LA-(Glc-Leu)] copolymer can be used as an efficient carrier for nanoparticle preparation of ciprofloxacin.
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Basak P, Adhikari B. Effect of the solubility of antibiotics on their release from degradable polyurethane. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2012.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Dang NTT, Turner MS, Coombes AGA. Development of intra-vaginal matrices from polycaprolactone for sustained release of antimicrobial agents. J Biomater Appl 2012; 28:74-83. [DOI: 10.1177/0885328212437393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Microporous poly(ɛ-caprolactone) matrices were loaded with an antibacterial agent, ciprofloxacin and an antifungal agent, miconazole nitrate, respectively, for investigations of their potential as controlled vaginal delivery devices. Ciprofloxacin loadings up to 15% w/w could be obtained by increasing the drug content of the poly(ɛ-caprolactone) solution, while the actual loadings of miconazole were much lower (1–3% w/w) due to drug partition into methanol during the solvent extraction. The kinetics of ciprofloxacin release in simulated vaginal fluid at 37℃ were characterised by a small burst release phase in the first 24 h, low drug release up to 7 days (10%) and gradual release of up to 80% of the drug content by day 30. Meanwhile, the release kinetics of miconazole-loaded matrices could be effectively described by the Higuchi model with 100% drug release from the highest loaded matrices (3.2% w/w) in 13 days. Ciprofloxacin or miconazole released over 30 and 13 days, respectively, from poly(ɛ-caprolactone) matrices into simulated vaginal fluid retained high levels of antimicrobial activity in excess of 80% of the activity of the free drug. This study confirms the potential of poly(ɛ-caprolactone) matrices for delivering antimicrobial agents in the form of an intra-vaginal device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nhung TT Dang
- The University of Queensland, Pharmacy Australia Centre of Excellence, 20 Cornwall street, Wooloongabba, QLD, Australia
| | - Mark S Turner
- The University of Queensland, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Allan GA Coombes
- The University of Queensland, Pharmacy Australia Centre of Excellence, 20 Cornwall street, Wooloongabba, QLD, Australia
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Kumar G, Sharma S, Shafiq N, Khuller GK, Malhotra S. Optimization, in vitro–in vivo Evaluation, and Short-term Tolerability of Novel Levofloxacin-loaded PLGA Nanoparticle Formulation. J Pharm Sci 2012; 101:2165-76. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.23087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2011] [Revised: 11/19/2011] [Accepted: 01/31/2012] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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72
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Garhwal R, Shady SF, Ellis EJ, Ellis JY, Leahy CD, McCarthy SP, Crawford KS, Gaines P. Sustained ocular delivery of ciprofloxacin using nanospheres and conventional contact lens materials. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2012; 53:1341-52. [PMID: 22266514 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.11-8215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To formulate conventional contact lenses that incorporate nanosphere-encapsulated antibiotic and demonstrate that the lenses provide for sustained antibacterial activity. METHODS A copolymer composed of pullulan and polycaprolactone (PCL) was used to synthesize core-shell nanospheres that encapsulated ciprofloxacin. Bactericidal activity of the nanosphere-encapsulated ciprofloxacin (nanosphere/cipro) was tested by using liquid cultures of either Staphylococcus aureus or Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Nanosphere/cipro was then incorporated into HEMA-based contact lenses that were tested for growth inhibition of S. aureus or P. aeruginosa in liquid cultures inoculated daily with fresh bacteria. Lens designs included thin or thick lenses incorporating nanosphere/cipro and ciprofloxacin-HCl-soaked Acuvue lenses (Acuvue; Johnson & Johnson Vision Care, Inc., Jacksonville, FL). RESULTS Less than 2 μg/mL of nanosphere/cipro effectively inhibited the proliferation of cultures inoculated with 10(7) or 10(8) bacteria/mL of S. aureus and P. aeruginosa, respectively. HEMA-based contact lenses polymerized with nanosphere/cipro were transparent, effectively inhibited the proliferation of greater than 10(7)/mL of bacteria added daily over 3 days of culture, and killed up to 5 × 10(9) total microbes in a single inoculation. A thicker lens design provided additional inhibition of bacterial growth for up to 96 hours. CONCLUSIONS Core-shell nanospheres loaded with an antibiotic can be incorporated into a conventional, transparent contact lens and provide for sustained and effective bactericidal activity and thereby provide a new drug delivery platform for widespread use in treating ocular disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Garhwal
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, Massachusetts 01854, USA
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73
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Abstract
Doxycycline is a tetracycline antibiotic with a potent antibacterial activity against a wide variety of bacteria. However, poor cellular penetration limits its use for the treatment of infectious disease caused by intracellular pathogens. One potential strategy to overcome this problem is the use of nanotechnology that can help to easily target the intracellular sites of infection. The antibacterial activity of these antibiotics is enhanced by encapsulating it in polymeric nanoparticles. In this study, we describe the improvement of the entrapment efficiency of doxycycline hydrochloride (doxycycline)-loaded PLGA:PCL nanoparticles up to 70% with variation of different formulation parameters such as polymer ratio, amount of drug loading (w/w), solvent selection, electrolyte addition, and pH alteration in the formulation. We have evaluated the efficacy of these nanoparticles over native doxycycline against a strain of Escherichia coli (DH5α) through growth inhibition and colony counting. The results indicate that doxycycline-loaded nanoparticles have superior effectiveness compared to native doxycycline against the above bacterial strain, resulting from the sustained release of doxycycline from nanoparticles. These results are encouraging for the use of these doxycycline-loaded nanoparticles for the treatment of infections caused by doxycycline-sensitive bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ranjita Misra
- Institute of Life Sciences, Chandrasekharpur, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India
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74
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Dry powders based on PLGA nanoparticles for pulmonary delivery of antibiotics: Modulation of encapsulation efficiency, release rate and lung deposition pattern by hydrophilic polymers. J Control Release 2012; 157:149-59. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2011.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2011] [Revised: 08/02/2011] [Accepted: 08/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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75
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Ulery BD, Nair LS, Laurencin CT. Biomedical Applications of Biodegradable Polymers. JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE. PART B, POLYMER PHYSICS 2011; 49:832-864. [PMID: 21769165 PMCID: PMC3136871 DOI: 10.1002/polb.22259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1185] [Impact Index Per Article: 91.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Utilization of polymers as biomaterials has greatly impacted the advancement of modern medicine. Specifically, polymeric biomaterials that are biodegradable provide the significant advantage of being able to be broken down and removed after they have served their function. Applications are wide ranging with degradable polymers being used clinically as surgical sutures and implants. In order to fit functional demand, materials with desired physical, chemical, biological, biomechanical and degradation properties must be selected. Fortunately, a wide range of natural and synthetic degradable polymers has been investigated for biomedical applications with novel materials constantly being developed to meet new challenges. This review summarizes the most recent advances in the field over the past 4 years, specifically highlighting new and interesting discoveries in tissue engineering and drug delivery applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bret D. Ulery
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, New England Musculoskeletal Institute, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
- Institute of Regenerative Engineering, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
| | - Lakshmi S. Nair
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, New England Musculoskeletal Institute, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
- Institute of Regenerative Engineering, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
- Department of Chemical, Materials & Biomolecular Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268
| | - Cato T. Laurencin
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, New England Musculoskeletal Institute, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
- Institute of Regenerative Engineering, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030
- Department of Chemical, Materials & Biomolecular Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268
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76
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Patel NR, Damann K, Leonardi C, Sabliov CM. Size dependency of PLGA-nanoparticle uptake and antifungal activity against Aspergillus flavus. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2011; 6:1381-95. [PMID: 21651442 DOI: 10.2217/nnm.11.35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Itraconazole and coumarin-6 loaded polylactic-co-glycolic acid-nanoparticles (PLGA-ITZ- and PLGA-C6-NPs) were synthesized and tested for fungal cell uptake and antifungal ability based on particle size. MATERIALS & METHODS PLGA-ITZ- and PLGA-C6-NPs were synthesized using an oil-in-water emulsion evaporation method. Fungal cell uptake and antifungal activity of the polymeric NPs was tested on Aspergillus flavus. RESULTS PLGA-C6-NPs of 203 nm associated with fungal cell surfaces and internalized efficiently, while 1206 nm NPs associated with cell surfaces were internalized less efficiently. Antifungal studies of PLGA-ITZ-NPs of 232, 630 and 1060 nm showed differences in inhibitory activity with 232 nm NPs showing superior activity at the lowest ITZ concentration of 0.003 mg/ml, followed by 630 and 1060 nm NPs. No differences in antifungal activity were observed at higher ITZ concentrations. CONCLUSION The PLGA-ITZ-NP system can increase bioavailability of ITZ by improving its aqueous dispersibility and efficiently delivering ITZ to fungal cells via endocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nipur R Patel
- Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA, 70803, USA
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77
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Veerapandian M, Yun K. Functionalization of biomolecules on nanoparticles: specialized for antibacterial applications. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2011; 90:1655-67. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-011-3291-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2010] [Revised: 03/25/2011] [Accepted: 03/26/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Vassiliou A, Papadimitriou S, Bikiaris D, Mattheolabakis G, Avgoustakis K. Facile synthesis of polyester-PEG triblock copolymers and preparation of amphiphilic nanoparticles as drug carriers. J Control Release 2010; 148:388-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2010.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2010] [Revised: 09/10/2010] [Accepted: 09/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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80
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Mohammadi G, Valizadeh H, Barzegar-Jalali M, Lotfipour F, Adibkia K, Milani M, Azhdarzadeh M, Kiafar F, Nokhodchi A. Development of azithromycin–PLGA nanoparticles: Physicochemical characterization and antibacterial effect against Salmonella typhi. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2010; 80:34-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2010.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2010] [Revised: 05/04/2010] [Accepted: 05/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Kesavan K, Nath G, Pandit JK. Sodium alginate based mucoadhesive system for gatifloxacin and its in vitro antibacterial activity. Sci Pharm 2010; 78:941-57. [PMID: 21179327 PMCID: PMC3007603 DOI: 10.3797/scipharm.1004-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2010] [Accepted: 09/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of this study was to formulate sodium alginate based ophthalmic mucoadhesive system of gatifloxacin and its in vitro antibacterial potential on pathogenic microorganisms, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Sodium carboxymethylcellulose (NaCMC) was added to the formulations to enhance the gel bioadhesion properties. The prepared formulations were evaluated for their in vitro drug release, gelation behaviour, rheological behavior, and mucoadhesion force. All formulations in non-physiological and physiological condition showed pseudo plastic behavior. Increase in the concentration of sodium alginate and sodium CMC enhanced the mucoadhesive force significantly. In vitro release of gatifloxacin from the system in simulated tear fluid (STF, pH â 7.4), was influenced significantly by the properties and concentration of sodium alginate, NaCMC. Significant reduction in total bacterial count was observed between control and treatment groups with both the test organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karthikeyan Kesavan
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh â 221 005, India.
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Antibacterial Efficacy of Inhalable Levofloxacin-Loaded Polymeric Nanoparticles Against E. coli Biofilm Cells: The Effect of Antibiotic Release Profile. Pharm Res 2010; 27:1597-609. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-010-0142-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2010] [Accepted: 03/29/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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83
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Mora-Huertas C, Fessi H, Elaissari A. Polymer-based nanocapsules for drug delivery. Int J Pharm 2010; 385:113-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2009.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 994] [Impact Index Per Article: 71.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2009] [Revised: 10/01/2009] [Accepted: 10/03/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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84
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Pagonis TC, Chen J, Fontana CR, Devalapally H, Ruggiero K, Song X, Foschi F, Dunham J, Skobe Z, Yamazaki H, Kent R, Tanner ACR, Amiji MM, Soukos NS. Nanoparticle-based endodontic antimicrobial photodynamic therapy. J Endod 2009; 36:322-8. [PMID: 20113801 DOI: 10.1016/j.joen.2009.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2009] [Revised: 10/01/2009] [Accepted: 10/18/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To study the in vitro effects of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles loaded with the photosensitizer methylene blue (MB) and light against Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 29212). MATERIALS AND METHODS The uptake and distribution of nanoparticles in E. faecalis in suspension was investigated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) after incubation with PLGA complexed with colloidal gold particles for 2.5, 5, and 10 minutes. E. faecalis species were sensitized in planktonic phase and in experimentally infected root canals of human extracted teeth with MB-loaded nanoparticles for 10 minutes followed by exposure to red light at 665 nm. RESULTS The nanoparticles were found to be concentrated mainly on the cell walls of microorganisms at all three time points. The synergism of light and MB-loaded nanoparticles led to approximately 2 and 1 log10 reduction of colony-forming units (CFUs) in planktonic phase and root canals, respectively. In both cases, mean log10 CFU levels were significantly lower than controls and MB-loaded nanoparticles without light. CONCLUSION The utilization of PLGA nanoparticles encapsulated with photoactive drugs may be a promising adjunct in antimicrobial endodontic treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom C Pagonis
- Advanced Graduate Endodontics, Division of Endodontics, Harvard School of Dental Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Zinc phthalocyanine-loaded PLGA biodegradable nanoparticles for photodynamic therapy in tumor-bearing mice. Lasers Med Sci 2009; 25:283-72. [DOI: 10.1007/s10103-009-0740-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2009] [Accepted: 10/27/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Misra R, Acharya S, Dilnawaz F, Sahoo SK. Sustained antibacterial activity of doxycycline-loaded poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) and poly(epsilon-caprolactone) nanoparticles. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2009; 4:519-30. [PMID: 19572818 DOI: 10.2217/nnm.09.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM To increase the entrapment efficiency of doxycycline (DXY)-loaded poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA):poly(epsilon-caprolactone) (PCL) nanoparticles by up to 70% by varying the different formulation parameters such as polymer ratio, amount of drug loading (w/w), solvent selection, electrolyte addition and pH in the formulation. METHOD Biodegradable polymers PLGA and PCL are used in various ratios for nanoparticle preparation using the water-in-oil-in-water double emulsion technique for water-soluble DXY. The physicochemical characterization of nanoparticles included size and surface charge measurement, study of surface morphology using scanning-electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy study, differential scanning calorimetry analysis and in vitro release kinetics study. RESULTS The mean particle size ranged from 230 to 360 nm, as measured by dynamic laser light scattering, and scanning-electron microscopy confirmed the spherical nature and smooth surface of the nanoparticles. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis of void nanoparticles, drug-loaded nanoparticles and native DXY indicated no interaction between the drug and polymer in the nanoparticle. Differential scanning calorimetry analysis of drug-loaded nanoparticles indicated a molecular level dispersion of DXY in the formulation. The antibacterial activity of native DXY and DXY-loaded nanoparticles were tested using a strain of Escherichia coli (DH5alpha) through growth inhibition and colony-counting method. The results indicated that DXY-loaded nanoparticles are more effective than native DXY due to the sustained release of DXY from nanoparticles in the E. coli strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ranjita Misra
- Laboratory for Nanomedicine, Institute of Life Sciences, Nalco Square, Chandrasekharpur, Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India
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87
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Hasani S, Pellequer Y, Lamprecht A. Selective Adhesion of Nanoparticles to Inflamed Tissue in Gastric Ulcers. Pharm Res 2009; 26:1149-54. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-009-9834-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2008] [Accepted: 01/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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