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Chang MS, Choi MJ, Park SY, Park SK. Inhibitory effects of Hoelen extract on melanogenesis in B16/F1 melanoma cells. Phytother Res 2011; 24:1359-64. [PMID: 20812279 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.3123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Melanin synthesis is regulated by melanogenic proteins, such as tyrosinase, tyrosinase-related protein 1 (TRP-1) and TRP-2. The effects of Hoelen extract on melanogenesis were investigated in B16Fl murine melanoma cells. Specifically, tyrosinase activity, cell viability and melanin content were assayed, and western blotting and RT-PCR for tyrosinase, TRP-1 and TRP-2 conducted. The results show that Hoelen significantly inhibited melanin synthesis through inhibition of TRP-2 expression, while it did not affect tyrosinase activity or its expression. Taken together, RT-PCR results showed that the depigmentation effect of Hoelen may be due to inhibition of TRP-2 gene transcription. These results suggest that Hoelen may be a useful inhibitor for the attenuation of melanogenesis and hyperpigmentation in skin cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mun Seog Chang
- Department of Prescriptionology, College of Oriental Medicine, Kyung Hee University, 1 Hoegi-dong, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 130-701, Republic of Korea
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Jiang MH, Zhu L, Jiang JG. Immunoregulatory actions of polysaccharides from Chinese herbal medicine. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2010; 14:1367-402. [DOI: 10.1517/14728222.2010.531010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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53
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Rapid profiling and target analysis of principal components in Fuling Decoctions by UFLC-DAD-ESI-MS. Fitoterapia 2010; 81:662-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2010.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2009] [Revised: 03/17/2010] [Accepted: 03/24/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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54
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de Caires S, Steenkamp V. Use of Yokukansan (TJ-54) in the treatment of neurological disorders: a review. Phytother Res 2010; 24:1265-70. [DOI: 10.1002/ptr.3146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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55
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Chen X, Tang Q, Chen Y, Wang W, Li S. Simultaneous extraction of polysaccharides from Poria cocos by ultrasonic technique and its inhibitory activities against oxidative injury in rats with cervical cancer. Carbohydr Polym 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2009.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Wang Y, Yu Y, Mao J. Carboxymethylated beta-glucan derived from Poria cocos with biological activities. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2009; 57:10913-10915. [PMID: 19877636 DOI: 10.1021/jf902589m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Water-insoluble beta-(1-3)-D-glucan isolated from the sclerotium of Poria cocos hardly exhibits biological activity. Therefore, it is advantageous to produce a value-added product from P. cocos. We extracted the beta-(1-3)-D-glucan from the sclerotium of P. cocos and synthesized a carboxymethylated derivative. The structural and physiological properties of the derivative were investigated. The carboxymethylation of the polysaccharides was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and the degree of substitution (DS) and molecular weight were obtained by the potentiometric titration and gel permeation chromatography (GPC) analysis, respectively. The carboxymethylation caused the enhancement of in vitro bile acid binding capacity of the polysaccharides, which would be explained by the improved water solubility and structural changes caused by carboxymethylation. In addition, in vitro antiradical capacity of the derivative was observed by the method of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongjiang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Chemical and Biological Processing Technology of Zhejiang Province, School of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou, 310023, People's Republic of China.
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Teruya T, Tatemoto H, Konishi T, Tako M. Structural characteristics and in vitro macrophage activation of acetyl fucoidan from Cladosiphon okamuranus. Glycoconj J 2009; 26:1019-28. [PMID: 19219547 DOI: 10.1007/s10719-008-9221-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2008] [Revised: 11/06/2008] [Accepted: 12/09/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We investigated a structural characteristics of acetyl fucoidan (CAF) isolated from commercially cultured Cladosiphon okamuranus. The CAF-induced macrophage activation and its signaling pathways in murine macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7 were also investigated. From the results of methylation analysis, CAF consisted of alpha-1-->3 linked L: -fucosyl residues and substituted sulfate and acetyl groups at C-4 on the main chain. CAF induced production of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6 in RAW 264.7 cells. Sulfate and acetyl groups of CAF involved in CAF-induced NO production. Neutralizing anti-Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), anti-CD14 and anti-scavenger receptor class A (SRA) but not anti-complement receptor type 3 monoclonal antibodies decreased CAF-induced NO production. The results of immunoblot analysis indicated that CAF activated mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) such as p38 MAPK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 and stress-activated protein kinase/c-Jun N-terminal kinase (SAPK/JNK). SB203580 (p38 MAPK inhibitor) and SP600125 (SAPK/JNK inhibitor), but not U0126 (MAPK/ERK kinase 1/2 inhibitor) decreased CAF-induced NO production. The results suggested that CAF induced macrophage activation through membrane receptors TLR4, CD14 and SRA, and MAPK signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Teruya
- The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24, Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-0065, Japan.
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Underwood JR, Chivers M, Dang TT, Licciardi PV. Stimulation of tetanus toxoid-specific immune responses by a traditional Chinese herbal medicine. Vaccine 2009; 27:6634-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.03.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2008] [Revised: 03/08/2009] [Accepted: 03/19/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Cao Y, Song Y, An N, Zeng S, Wang D, Yu L, Zhu T, Zhang T, Cui J, Zhou C, Deng X. The effects of telocinobufagin isolated from Chan Su on the activation and cytokine secretion of immunocytes in vitro. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2009; 23:457-64. [PMID: 19709323 DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-8206.2009.00696.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Many traditional Chinese medicines have been used as immunomodulators that act as either immunosuppressants or immunostimulators. Recently, our lab successfully isolated a monomer telocinobufagin (TCB) from the chloroform extract of Chan Su (Venenum Bufonis). In the present paper, we evaluated the immunomodulatory effects of this compound in vitro. We found that TCB significantly stimulates splenocyte proliferation when administered alone or in combination with polyclonal T-cell mitogens concanavalin A (Con A) and lipopolysaccharide. Telocinobufagin markedly enhances natural killer cell and peritoneal macrophage activation. Telocinobufagin increases the percentage of CD4, CD8 positive cells within a population of splenocytes. Moreover, we found that the level of several Th1 cytokines, including interleukin-2 (IL-2), interleukin-12 (IL-12), interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), are significantly increased after TCB treatment, while the level of the Th2 cytokine interleukin-4 (IL-4) is significantly decreased. As a result, the ratio of Th1/Th2 is significantly increased. Taken together, these results indicate that TCB has potential immune system regulatory effects and suggest that this compound could be developed as a novel immunotherapeutic agent to treat cancer and other immune-mediated diseases, and it may become a new immunomodulatory agent in many regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongguo Cao
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
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Chen S, Yin DK, Yao WB, Wang YD, Zhang YR, Gao XD. Macrophage receptors of polysaccharide isolated from a marine filamentous fungus Phoma herbarum YS4108. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2009; 30:1008-14. [PMID: 19575004 DOI: 10.1038/aps.2009.93] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM YCP, a novel (1,4)-alpha-D-glucan, was isolated from the mycelium of the marine filamentous fungus Phoma herbarum YS4108. In this work, we investigated a YCP-binding cellular receptor expressed by macrophages and the intracellular signal transduction pathways involved in YCP-induced macrophage activation. METHODS Fluorescence-labeled YCP (fl-YCP) was prepared using the CDAP-activation method. Fluorescence confocal laser microscopy and fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) were used to analyze the effect of fl-YCP on macrophages. To characterize the properties of the YCP receptor, carbohydrates and antibodies were used to inhibit the binding of fl-YCP to macrophages. Moreover, we investigated the role of membrane receptors Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2), Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), Toll-like receptor 6 (TLR6) and complement receptor 3 (CR3). We also examined the role of the p38 kinase pathway in mediating nitric oxide (NO) production. RESULTS YCP had an in vitro stimulatory effect on the release of NO in macrophage, and fl-YCP can bind directly to receptors on the surface of macrophages in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Competition studies show that LPS, laminarin, anti-TLR4 antibody and anti-CD11b (CR3) antibody could inhibit fl-YCP binding to macrophages. Conversely, mannose, anti-TLR2 and anti-TLR6 antibody could not. Treatment of RAW264.7 cells with YCP resulted in significant activation of p38 in a time-dependent manner. The specific p38 inhibitor SB203580 abrogated YCP-induced NO generation. Treatment of RAW264.7 cells with anti-TLR4 antibody and anti-CR3 antibody significantly reduced YCP-induced NO production and p38 activation. CONCLUSION We have demonstrated that YCP-induced NO production occurs through the TLR4 and CR3 membrane receptors in a p38 kinase-dependent manner in macrophages.Acta Pharmacologica Sinica (2009) 30: 1008-1014; doi: 10.1038/aps.2009.93.
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Jang SA, Park SK, Lim JD, Kang SC, Yang KH, Pyo SK, Sohn EH. The Comparative Immunomodulatory Effects of β-Glucans from Yeast, Bacteria, and Mushroom on the Function of Macrophages. Prev Nutr Food Sci 2009. [DOI: 10.3746/jfn.2009.14.2.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Effects of triterpenoids from Poria cocos Wolf on the serotonin type 3A receptor-mediated ion current in Xenopus oocytes. Eur J Pharmacol 2009; 615:27-32. [PMID: 19446542 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2009.04.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2008] [Revised: 04/20/2009] [Accepted: 04/29/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Poria cocos Wolf (P. cocos Wolf) is used to treat chronic gastritis, edema, nephrosis, gastric atony, acute gastroenteric catarrh, dizziness, emesis and vomiting. Triterpenoids are a class of natural compounds produced by P. cocos Wolf that contain acyclic 30-carbon precursors. In this study, we investigated the effect of triterpenoids (PA, Pachymic acid; DA, dehydroeburicoic acid; HA, 3beta-hydroxylanosta-7,9(11),24-trien-21-oic acid) on human 5-hydroxytryptamine 3A (5-HT(3A)) receptor channel activity, which is one of the ligand-gated ion channel families. The two-electrode voltage-clamp technique was used to examine the 5-HT3A mediated current. The inhibitory effect of triterpenoids on 5HT-induced inward current (I(5-HT)) occurred in a concentration dependent and reversible manner. Furthermore, the half-inhibitory concentrations (IC(50)) of PA, DA and HA were 3.2+/-0.2, 5.5+/-0.6 and 1.4+/-0.2 microM, respectively. This corresponded to an order of potency for the inhibition of I(5-HT) in oocytes expressing human 5-HT(3A) receptor of HA>PA>DA. Finally, inhibition of I(5HT) by triterpenoids occurred in a non-competitive manner, while inhibition by HA and PA showed more voltage-dependency. Taken together, these results indicate that triterpenoids may regulate the expressed 5-HT(3A) receptors in Xenopus oocytes. Furthermore, this regulation of the ligand-gated ion channel activity by triterpenoids may be one of the pharmacological actions of P. cocos Wolf.
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63
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Yang CH, Zhang SF, Liu WY, Zhang ZJ, Liu JH. Two New Triterpenes from the Surface Layer ofPoria cocos. Helv Chim Acta 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/hlca.200800360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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64
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Flexible chain conformation of (1→3)-β-d-glucan from Poria cocos sclerotium in NaOH/urea aqueous solution. Carbohydr Polym 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.08.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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65
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Kang JS, Lee KH, Han MH, Lee H, Ahn JM, Han SB, Han G, Lee K, Park SK, Kim HM. Antiinflammatory activity of methanol extract isolated from stem bark ofMagnolia kobus. Phytother Res 2008; 22:883-8. [DOI: 10.1002/ptr.2386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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66
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Xie J, Wang W, Zhang Y, Bai Y, Yang Q. Simultaneous analysis of glycyrrhizin, paeoniflorin, quercetin, ferulic acid, liquiritin, formononetin, benzoic acid and isoliquiritigenin in the Chinese proprietary medicine Xiao Yao Wan by HPLC. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2007; 45:450-5. [PMID: 17709224 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2007.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2007] [Revised: 07/11/2007] [Accepted: 07/11/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
A high performance liquid chromatography coupled with photodiode-array detection method was developed for simultaneous determination of glycyrrhizin, paeoniflorin, benzoic acid, quercetin, ferulic acid, formononetin, liquiritin and isoliquiritigenin in the Chinese proprietary medicine "Xiao Yao Wan" (XYW). The analysis was performed by reverse phase gradient elution, using an aqueous mobile phase (containing 0.1% phosphoric acid) modified by acetonitrile and detection made simultaneously at four wavelengths. The method was validated for accuracy, precision and limits of detection and quantification. Ten batches of XYW obtained from different pharmaceutical companies were analyzed and found to contain different amounts of the eight bioactive markers. This method could be used for quality assessment of this herbal medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junbo Xie
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
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67
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Structure, molecular size and antitumor activities of polysaccharides from Poria cocos mycelia produced in fermenter. Carbohydr Polym 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2007.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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68
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Wu CA, Wu JJ, Tsai MJ, Chen RY. Immunomodulatory effects of a traditional Chinese medicine, Chi-Shie-Shuang-Bu-An-Shen-Tang, on BALB/c mice. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2007; 113:300-5. [PMID: 17681444 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2007.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2006] [Revised: 06/12/2007] [Accepted: 06/22/2007] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Chi-Shie-Shuang-Bu-An-Shen-Tang (CST), a traditional Chinese medicine, has long been used to stabilize one's spirit and treatment of body weakness caused by fatigue. In order to understand whether the CST possess the immunological function and effect of thermal processing on its activities, sterilized (SCST) and nonsterilized CST (NCST) extracts were orally administrated to BABL/c mice for 1 or 3 weeks as drinking water. The results showed that CST extract after sterilization at 121 degrees C for 15 min had higher immunological activities than nonsterilized CST. SCST revealed mitogenic effects on splenocyte stimulated by concanavalin A (Con A) and mediated the changes of total serum antibodies; production of IgG increased and IgE reduced. Among cytokines, secretion of IFN-gamma increased and IL-5 decreased, which fit in with the Th1 cell profile, however cytolytic activity of natural killer cells did not show any significant difference. Furthermore, the population of CD4(+) T cells in the mice spleen increased after oral administration of SCST for 3 weeks. These results suggest that SCST had the immunomodulatory effects which drove CD4(+) T cells into Th1 cells and had potential benefit to cope with CD4(+) T lymphopenia condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ching An Wu
- Food Industry Research and Development Institute, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan.
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69
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Yance DR, Sagar SM. Targeting angiogenesis with integrative cancer therapies. Integr Cancer Ther 2006; 5:9-29. [PMID: 16484711 DOI: 10.1177/1534735405285562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
An integrative approach for managing a patient with cancer should target the multiple biochemical and physiological pathways that support tumor development while minimizing normal tissue toxicity. Angiogenesis is a key process in the promotion of cancer. Many natural health products that inhibit angiogenesis also manifest other anticancer activities. The authors will focus on natural health products (NHPs) that have a high degree of antiangiogenic activity but also describe some of their many other interactions that can inhibit tumor progression and reduce the risk of metastasis. NHPs target various molecular pathways besides angiogenesis, including epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), the HER-2/neu gene, the cyclooxygenase-2 enzyme, the NF-kB transcription factor, the protein kinases, Bcl-2 protein, and coagulation pathways. The herbalist has access to hundreds of years of observational data on the anticancer activity of many herbs. Laboratory studies are confirming the knowledge that is already documented in traditional texts. The following herbs are traditionally used for anticancer treatment and are antiangiogenic through multiple interdependent processes that include effects on gene expression, signal processing, and enzyme activities: Artemisia annua (Chinese wormwood), Viscum album (European mistletoe), Curcuma longa (turmeric), Scutellaria baicalensis (Chinese skullcap), resveratrol and proanthocyanidin (grape seed extract), Magnolia officinalis (Chinese magnolia tree), Camellia sinensis (green tea), Ginkgo biloba, quercetin, Poria cocos, Zingiber officinale (ginger), Panax ginseng, Rabdosia rubescens (rabdosia), and Chinese destagnation herbs. Quality assurance of appropriate extracts is essential prior to embarking on clinical trials. More data are required on dose response, appropriate combinations, and potential toxicities. Given the multiple effects of these agents, their future use for cancer therapy probably lies in synergistic combinations. During active cancer therapy, they should generally be evaluated in combination with chemotherapy and radiation. In this role, they act as biological response modifiers and adaptogens, potentially enhancing the efficacy of the so-called conventional therapies. Their effectiveness may be increased when multiple agents are used in optimal combinations. New designs for trials to demonstrate activity in human subjects are required. Although controlled trials might be preferred, smaller studies with appropriate end points and surrogate markers for antiangiogenic response could help prioritize agents for the larger resource-intensive phase 3 trials.
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Huang Q, Zhang L, Cheung PC, Tan X. Evaluation of sulfated α-glucans from Poria cocos mycelia as potential antitumor agent. Carbohydr Polym 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2005.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Schepetkin IA, Quinn MT. Botanical polysaccharides: macrophage immunomodulation and therapeutic potential. Int Immunopharmacol 2005; 6:317-33. [PMID: 16428067 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2005.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 859] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2005] [Revised: 09/28/2005] [Accepted: 10/03/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Botanical polysaccharides exhibit a number of beneficial therapeutic properties, and it is thought that the mechanisms involved in these effects are due to the modulation of innate immunity and, more specifically, macrophage function. In this review, we summarize our current state of understanding of the macrophage modulatory effects of botanical polysaccharides isolated from a wide array of different species of flora, including higher plants, mushrooms, lichens and algae. Overall, the primary effect of botanical polysaccharides is to enhance and/or activate macrophage immune responses, leading to immunomodulation, anti-tumor activity, wound-healing and other therapeutic effects. Furthermore, botanical and microbial polysaccharides bind to common surface receptors and induce similar immunomodulatory responses in macrophages, suggesting that evolutionarily conserved polysaccharide structural features are shared between these organisms. Thus, the evaluation of botanical polysaccharides provides a unique opportunity for the discovery of novel therapeutic agents and adjuvants that exhibit beneficial immunomodulatory properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor A Schepetkin
- Department of Veterinary Molecular Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
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