51
|
Guidetti M, Carraro L, Castelli L. An Exploration of the Differential Effects of Parents' Authoritarianism Dimensions on Pre-school Children's Epistemic, Existential, and Relational Needs. Front Psychol 2017; 7:2079. [PMID: 28119661 PMCID: PMC5222798 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Accepted: 12/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Research on adult populations has widely investigated the deep differences that characterize individuals who embrace either conservative or liberal views of the world. More recently, research has started to investigate these differences at very early stages of life. One major goal is to explore how parental political ideology may influence children's characteristics that are known to be associated to different ideological positions. In the present work, we further investigate the relations between parents' ideology and children cognitive processing strategies within the framework of political ideology as motivated social cognition (Jost et al., 2003) and the dual process model of political ideology (Duckitt et al., 2002). Specifically, epistemic (implicit attitudes toward order vs. chaos), existential (negativity and threat bias), and relational needs (conformity measure) were assessed in pre-school children (N = 106; 4–6 years). For each child at least one parent completed both the Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and the Right Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) measures. Interestingly, results indicated that mothers' and fathers' responses had unique associations with children's socio-cognitive motivations, and different findings emerged in relation to the two facets of parental authoritarianism, namely dominance (i.e., SDO) and submission (i.e., RWA). More specifically, children's existential needs appeared to be more related to mothers' RWA scores, whereas children's epistemic needs appeared to be more related to fathers' SDO. Finally, parents' RWA and SDO scores appeared to have opposite effects on children's relational needs: children's conformity increased at increasing levels of mothers' RWA and decreased at increasing levels of fathers' SDO. Overall, however, results were relatively weak and several links between the responses of parents and their children were not significant, suggesting caution in drawing strong conclusions about the impact of parents' ideology. Limitations and future developments will be discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Margherita Guidetti
- Dipartimento di Comunicazione ed Economia, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - Luciana Carraro
- Dipartimento di Psicologia dello Sviluppo e della Socializzazione, University of Padova Padova, Italy
| | - Luigi Castelli
- Dipartimento di Psicologia dello Sviluppo e della Socializzazione, University of Padova Padova, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
52
|
Meyer M, Gelman SA. Gender Essentialism in Children and Parents: Implications for the Development of Gender Stereotyping and Gender-Typed Preferences. SEX ROLES 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-016-0646-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
53
|
Williams A, Steele JR, Lipman C. Assessing Children’s Implicit Attitudes Using the Affect Misattribution Procedure. JOURNAL OF COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/15248372.2015.1061527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
|
54
|
Cvencek D, Greenwald AG, Meltzoff AN. Implicit measures for preschool children confirm self-esteem's role in maintaining a balanced identity. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2015.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
55
|
Cheetham TJ, Turner-Cobb JM, Gamble T. Children's implicit understanding of the stress-illness link: Testing development of health cognitions. Br J Health Psychol 2015; 21:781-795. [PMID: 26689437 PMCID: PMC5095802 DOI: 10.1111/bjhp.12181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2014] [Revised: 11/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Objective Innate knowledge and developmental stage theory have been used to explain children's understanding of concepts relating to health, illness, and stress. The aim of this study was to investigate the degree to which children demonstrate unconscious cognitive associations between the concepts of stress and illness. Design The study employed an experimental design using an age appropriate implicit association task. Methods Thirty‐two children (5–11 years of age) completed the Preschool Implicit Association Test (PSIAT), a computer‐based measure of reaction time to consistent (stress and illness) and inconsistent (stress and health) concept pairings. Results Whilst age group had a significant effect on reaction times (older children generally displaying faster reaction times than younger children), those as young as 5–6 years of age were able to demonstrate implicit associations between stress and illness using the PSIAT. There was also some indication that this association peaks at around 7–8 years of age. Conclusions Findings support a combination of developmental stage theory and the innate theory of children's understanding. Whilst sample size is small, this study is the first to apply the PSIAT to the context of implicit cognitive associations between stress and illness in children. Findings have potential implications for the delivery of interventions to facilitate health promotion and development of positive health behaviours in children and indicate that even children as young as 5–6 years have some ability to relate to the concept that stress may influence illness. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? The way in which children understand health and illness is commensurate with their developmental stage and experience of illness. Children also appear to have a degree of innate understanding of health and illness and their causes. Furthermore, recent work suggests children have some innate understanding and knowledge of the concept of stress. What does this study add? This is the first study to use an implicit association task to assess children's understanding of stress and illness. Implicit stress–illness associations were seen in children as young as 5–6 years of age. Whilst sample size was small, this proof‐of‐concept study bridges disciplines to further understanding of health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Tim Gamble
- Department of Psychology, University of Bath, UK
| |
Collapse
|
56
|
Qian MK, Heyman GD, Quinn PC, Messi FA, Fu G, Lee K. Implicit Racial Biases in Preschool Children and Adults From Asia and Africa. Child Dev 2015; 87:285-96. [PMID: 26435128 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This research used an Implicit Racial Bias Test to investigate implicit racial biases among 3- to 5-year-olds and adult participants in China (N = 213) and Cameroon (N = 257). In both cultures, participants displayed high levels of racial biases that remained stable between 3 and 5 years of age. Unlike adults, young children's implicit racial biases were unaffected by the social status of the other-race groups. Also, unlike adults, young children displayed overt explicit racial biases, and these biases were dissociated from their implicit biases. The results provide strong evidence for the early emergence of implicit racial biases and point to the need to reduce them in early childhood.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miao K Qian
- Hangzhou Normal University.,University of Toronto
| | - Gail D Heyman
- University of California, San Diego.,Zhejiang Normal University
| | | | | | | | - Kang Lee
- University of Toronto.,University of California, San Diego.,Zhejiang Normal University
| |
Collapse
|
57
|
Gibson B, Robbins E, Rochat P. White Bias in 3–7-Year-Old Children across Cultures. JOURNAL OF COGNITION AND CULTURE 2015. [DOI: 10.1163/15685373-12342155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In three studies we report data confirming and extending the finding of a tendency toward a White preference bias by young children of various ethnic backgrounds. European American preschoolers who identify with a White doll also prefer it to a Black doll. In contrast, same age African American children who identify with a Black doll do not show a significant preference for it over a White doll. These results are comparable in African American children attending either a racially mixed (heterogeneous), or an Afro-centric, all African American (homogenous) preschool. These results show the persistence of an observation that contributed to school de-segregation in the United States. Results also reveal a lack of congruence between skin color identity and preference is not limited to African Americans. There is a comparable, if not stronger White preference bias in five to seven-year-old Polynesian and Melanesian children tested in their native island nations. Using a modified procedure controlling for binary forced choice biases, we confirm these findings with second generation American children of Indian descent showing clear signs of a White (lighter skin preference) bias. These results are consistent with the idea that during the preschool years children are sensitive and attracted to signs of higher social status that, for historical reasons and across cultures, tends to be associated with lighter skin color.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bentley Gibson
- Department of Psychology, Emory UniversityUSA36 Eagle Row No. 270, Atlanta, ga 30322
| | - Erin Robbins
- Department of Psychology, Emory UniversityUSA36 Eagle Row No. 270, Atlanta, ga 30322
| | - Philippe Rochat
- Department of Psychology, Emory UniversityUSA36 Eagle Row No. 270, Atlanta, ga 30322
| |
Collapse
|
58
|
Dunham Y, Baron AS, Banaji MR. The development of implicit gender attitudes. Dev Sci 2015; 19:781-9. [DOI: 10.1111/desc.12321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 04/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
59
|
Empathy ≠ sharing: Perspectives from phenomenology and developmental psychology. Conscious Cogn 2015; 36:543-53. [PMID: 26070850 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2015.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2014] [Revised: 05/12/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
We argue that important insights regarding the topic of sharing can be gathered from phenomenology and developmental psychology; insights that in part challenge widespread ideas about what sharing is and where it can be found. To be more specific, we first exemplify how the notion of sharing is being employed in recent discussions of empathy, and then argue that this use of the notion tends to be seriously confused. It typically conflates similarity and sharing and, more generally speaking, fails to recognize that sharing proper involves reciprocity. As part of this critical analysis, we draw on sophisticated analyses of the distinction between empathy and emotional sharing that can be found in early phenomenology. Next, we turn to developmental psychology. Sharing is not simply one thing, but a complex and many-layered phenomenon. By tracing its early developmental trajectory from infancy and beyond, we show how careful psychological observations can help us develop a more sophisticated understanding of sharing than the one currently employed in many discussions in the realm of neuroscience. In our conclusion, we return to the issue of empathy and argue that although empathy does not involve or entail sharing, empathy understood as a basic sensitivity to and understanding of others (rather than as a special prosocial concern for others) might be a precondition for sharing.
Collapse
|
60
|
Baron AS. Constraints on the Development of Implicit Intergroup Attitudes. CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/cdep.12105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
61
|
Cai H, Wu M, Luo YLL, Yang J. Implicit self-esteem decreases in adolescence: a cross-sectional study. PLoS One 2014; 9:e89988. [PMID: 24587169 PMCID: PMC3934976 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2013] [Accepted: 01/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Implicit self-esteem has remained an active research topic in both the areas of implicit social cognition and self-esteem in recent decades. The purpose of this study is to explore the development of implicit self-esteem in adolescents. A total of 599 adolescents from junior and senior high schools in East China participated in the study. They ranged in age from 11 to 18 years with a mean age of 14.10 (SD = 2.16). The degree of implicit self-esteem was assessed using the Implicit Association Test (IAT) with the improved D score as the index. Participants also completed the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (α = 0.77). For all surveyed ages, implicit self-esteem was positively biased, all ts>8.59, all ps<0.001. The simple correlation between implicit self-esteem and age was significant, r = −.25, p = 1.0×10−10. A regression with implicit self-esteem as the criterion variable, and age, gender, and age × gender interaction as predictors further revealed the significant negative linear relationship between age and implicit self-esteem, β = −0.19, t = −3.20, p = 0.001. However, explicit self-esteem manifested a reverse “U” shape throughout adolescence. Implicit self-esteem in adolescence manifests a declining trend with increasing age, suggesting that it is sensitive to developmental or age-related changes. This finding enriches our understanding of the development of implicit social cognition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Huajian Cai
- Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- * E-mail:
| | - Mingzheng Wu
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yu L. L. Luo
- Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Yang
- Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
62
|
Priming as a way of understanding children’s mental representations of the social world. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2013.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
63
|
Baron AS, Dunham Y, Banaji M, Carey S. Constraints on the Acquisition of Social Category Concepts. JOURNAL OF COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/15248372.2012.742902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
64
|
Cvencek D, Meltzoff AN, Kapur M. Cognitive consistency and math–gender stereotypes in Singaporean children. J Exp Child Psychol 2014; 117:73-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2013.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2013] [Revised: 07/10/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
|
65
|
Li V, Spitzer B, Olson KR. Preschoolers Reduce Inequality While Favoring Individuals With More. Child Dev 2013; 85:1123-1133. [PMID: 24359582 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
66
|
O'Driscoll C, Heary C, Hennessy E, McKeague L. Explicit and implicit stigma towards peers with mental health problems in childhood and adolescence. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2012; 53:1054-62. [PMID: 22823158 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02580.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Children and adolescents with mental health problems are widely reported to have problems with peer relationships; however, few studies have explored the way in which these children are regarded by their peers. For example, little is known about the nature of peer stigmatisation, and no published research has investigated implicit attitudes thus ensuring that stigma is not well understood. To address this issue, the current study explored patterns of explicit and implicit stigmatisation of peers with depression and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). METHODS The sample was 385 children (M = 10.21 years) and adolescents (M = 15.36 years). Participants completed a questionnaire assessing explicit stigma towards an age- and gender-matched peer with ADHD or depression and another peer with 'normal issues' who were described in vignettes. They also completed a modified version of the implicit association test (IAT) that explored implicit attitudes towards the target peers. RESULTS Questionnaire data indicated that the peer with ADHD was perceived more negatively than the peer with depression on all dimensions of stigma, except perceived dangerousness and fear. In contrast, the IAT findings suggest that some participants had more negative views of the peer with depression than the peer with ADHD. Specifically, the findings demonstrate that adolescent males demonstrated significantly stronger negative implicit evaluations of depression compared with younger males and adolescent females. CONCLUSIONS Children and adolescents demonstrate stigmatising responses to peers with common mental health problems. The nature and extent of these responses depends on the type of problem and the type of measurement used. The findings highlight the importance of using both explicit and implicit measures of stigma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claire O'Driscoll
- School of Psychology, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland School of Psychology, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
67
|
Heiphetz L, Spelke ES, Banaji MR. Patterns of implicit and explicit attitudes in children and adults: tests in the domain of religion. J Exp Psychol Gen 2012; 142:864-79. [PMID: 22905875 DOI: 10.1037/a0029714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Among the most replicated results in social cognition is the split between explicit and implicit attitudes; adults demonstrate weaker group-based preferences on explicit rather than implicit measures. However, the developmental origins of this pattern remain unclear. If implicit attitudes develop over a protracted period of time, children should not demonstrate the implicit preferences observed among adults. Additionally, unlike adults, children may report group-based preferences due to their lesser concern with social desirability. In Study 1, Christian adults showed the expected pattern of robust implicit preference but no explicit preference. In 4 additional experiments, 6- to 8-year-old children whose parents identified them as Christian viewed characters described as belonging to 2 starkly different religious groups ("strong religious difference") or 2 relatively similar religious groups ("weak religious difference"). Participants then completed explicit and implicit (IAT) measures of attitude toward Christians and either Hindus (Study 2) or Jews (Studies 3-5). Three main results emerged. First, like adults, children showed significant implicit pro-Christian preferences across all studies. Second, unlike adults, children in the "strong religious difference" case reported preferences of approximately the same magnitude as their implicit attitudes (i.e., no dissociation). Third, even in the "weak religious difference" case, children showed implicit pro-Christian preferences (although, like adults, their explicit attitudes were not sensitive to intergroup difference). These data suggest that the seeds of implicit religious preferences are sown early and that children's explicit preferences are influenced by the social distance between groups.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Larisa Heiphetz
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, 33 Kirkland Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
68
|
Uhlmann EL, Leavitt K, Menges JI, Koopman J, Howe M, Johnson RE. Getting Explicit About the Implicit. ORGANIZATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS 2012. [DOI: 10.1177/1094428112442750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Joel Koopman
- Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Michael Howe
- Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
69
|
Halim ML, Ruble DN, Amodio DM. From Pink Frilly Dresses to ‘One of the Boys’: A Social-Cognitive Analysis of Gender Identity Development and Gender Bias. SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY COMPASS 2011. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00399.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
70
|
Wright JC. Children's and adolescents' tolerance for divergent beliefs: exploring the cognitive and affective dimensions of moral conviction in our youth. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2011; 30:493-510. [PMID: 23039329 DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-835x.2011.02058.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Moral conviction predicts interpersonal tolerance in adults, but its role in children and adolescents is not as well understood. This study measured moral conviction for a variety of issues along two separate dimensions - cognitive and affective - in children and adolescents (4th-12th grade). Results showed that, like adults, when children and adolescents view an issue as moral, this is strongly predictive of both age groups' discomfort with divergent beliefs. But only for adolescents, and not children, did moral conviction play a role in that discomfort, as had previously been found with adults. The context in which the divergent beliefs were encountered also mattered, but more for adolescents than for children - both groups were most comfortable with divergent beliefs when they were encountered in distal relations.
Collapse
|