Photocatalytic degradation kinetics and mechanism of antivirus drug-lamivudine in TiO2 dispersion

Review of the Mechanism and Operational Factors Influencing the Degradation Process of Contaminants in Heterogenous Photocatalysis

This paper presents a review of the principles and mechanisms involved in the process of heterogenous photocatalysis. The goal of photocatalysis is to remove persistent organic pollutants as well as microorganisms present in contaminated water. With the help of a semiconductor photocatalyst, solar photons are utilised to generate electron–hole pairs in the oxidation process, forming hydroxyl and superoxide radicals. There are several types of semiconductor photocatalyst available, the most widely used being titanium dioxide (TiO2). The effects of various operating factors influencing the photocatalytic degradation of pollutants, such as pH, catalyst concentration, substrate concentration, light intensity and wavelength, and oxidising agents are discussed. Heterogenous photocatalysis technology has been used in wastewater treatment during the last decade, and has been growing in efficiency ever since. From previous studies of different applications, it will be shown that this process is simple, cost-effective, sustainable and environmentally friendly. However, there are some minor disadvantages associated with its use in water purification, which are presented in this paper.

Indirect photochemical transformations of acyclovir and penciclovir in aquatic environments increase ecological risk

Acyclovir and penciclovir, 2 antiviral drugs, are increasingly detected in aquatic environments. The present study explores the natural photochemical transformation mechanisms and fate of these drugs, examining direct and indirect photochemical transformation under simulated sunlight irradiation. The 2 antiviral drugs are photostable under certain conditions but significantly degrade in the presence of chromophoric dissolved organic matter (DOM). The degradation rate associated with the drugs' indirect photochemical transformation scaled with chromophoric DOM concentration. Quenchers and sensitizers were used to identify indirect photochemical transformation mechanism. Results suggested that both pharmaceuticals could be transformed by reacting with (1)O2, (•)OH, and excited chromophoric DOM. The (1)O2 played an important role in indirect photochemical transformation. Furthermore, the reaction kinetics between their substructural molecules, guanine, isocytosine, and imidazole, with different reactive oxygen species were evaluated to determine which substrate functionalities were most susceptible to singlet oxygenation. Imidazole was identified as the reaction site for (1)O2, and preliminary (1)O2 oxidation mechanisms were further evaluated based on liquid chromatographic-tandem mass spectrometric results. Finally, aquatic ecotoxicity assessment of phototransformed solutions revealed that the degradation of acyclovir and penciclovir may not ultimately diminish environmental risk because of either formation of more toxic intermediates than parent pharmaceuticals or some synergistic effects existing between the intermediates.

Aspects of decontamination of ivermectin and praziquantel from environmental waters using advanced oxidation technology

Recently performed environmental risk assessments of ivermectin demonstrated the need to complete the information regarding the fate of ivermectin in environment. There is also a lack of information concerning the fate and stability of praziquantel. The forced degradation study and photocatalytic degradation pathways in aqueous TiO2 suspensions of the two anthelmintics ivermectin and praziquantel were investigated and compared. The degradation efficiency increased for both compounds with the increase in the TiO2 concentration from 0.25 to 2.00 g L(-1), and then remained constant. The estimated k-values were from 0.36 h(-1) to 0.64 h(-1) for IVE and from 0.29 h(-1) to 0.47 h(-1) for PZQ, respectively. The degradation rate was not significantly impacted by the change of the pH value (pH 3, 5, 7, and 9) at 2.0 g L(-1) of TiO2. The photo degradation was about 90% for both compounds after 5 h of irradiation and it was significantly inhibited in the presence of iodide anion and isopropyl alcohol, which indicated, that hydroxyl radicals as well as holes contributed to the degradation of both anthelmintics. The contribution of hydroxyl radicals and holes was 92.1% for IVE and 93.2% for PZQ, respectively. Photocatalytic process of ivermectin resulted in three degradation intermediates; another two were formed during acidic and basic hydrolysis. Praziquantel underwent degradation to six degradation intermediates; four of them were formed under photocatalytic irradiation. The intermediates were identified using UHPLC-MS/MS. UV/TiO2 photolysis has been found as an effective advanced oxidation technology for the decontamination of ivermectin and praziquantel.

Photocatalytic mineralization of codeine by UV-A/TiO₂--Kinetics, intermediates, and pathways

This study investigated the photocatalytic degradation of codeine by UV-irradiated TiO2. The degradation kinetics was determined under varied conditions including the TiO2 loading, codeine concentration, and pH. Codeine and several reaction intermediates including morphine were identified and tracked during degradation using HPLC/MS-MS technique, along with TOC and IC measurements. Specifically, removal of 100 μg/L of spike codeine was complete in 3 min by contact with a 0.1 g/L suspension of TiO2 under UV irradiation at pH 7. The degradation kinetics of codeine was first-order with respect to both the catalyst TiO2 and the reactant codeine, with enhanced reaction rates with increasing pH up to pH 9. Mineralization of codeine was possible upon prolonged contact; near complete mineralization of 10 mg/L of codeine was achieved in 90 min with 0.1 g/L TiO2 under irradiation at pH 5, during which the organic nitrogen was converted to NH3-N (74%) and NO3-N (22%). Based on the identified intermediates, two degradation pathways were proposed of which one involved ipso-substitution followed by cleavage of the aromatic ring and another involved repeated hydroxylation of the codeine molecule followed by its fragmentation.

Development of a mathematical model to predict different parameters during pharmaceutical wastewater treatment using TiO2 coated membrane

The aim of present study is to develop a mathematical model to understand the photomineralization process for an antiseptic drug component, chlorhexidine digluconate using catalytic membrane. Overall process was executed in a photo reactor with immobilized TiO2 nanoparticles on the membrane surface, which gives the better recovery and reuse of the catalyst. To assess the overall process performance, a mathematical model has been developed for prediction of substrate concentration in the permeate stream and the theoretical build-up of the polarized layer in case of a membrane coated with TiO2 nanoparticles. In the developed mathematical model, the governing partial differential equation was solved with the help of initial boundary condition over the concentration boundary layer and Kozeny-Carmen equation. In this model the simultaneous change in the active surface area and the polarized layer thickness with the change in substrate concentration in the boundary layer was incorporated to enhance the accuracy of the model. The resulting non-linear partial differential equation, coupled with other non-linear ordinary differential equation is solved using Runga Kutta fourth order method. Average deviation between theoretical results and the experimental data generated in this study was found to remain within ±5% and precision level was maintained at 0.01%.

Studies on adsorption, reaction mechanisms and kinetics for photocatalytic degradation of CHD, a pharmaceutical waste

The photocatalytic degradation of chlorhexidine digluconate (CHD), a disinfectant and topical antiseptic and adsorption of CHD catalyst surface in dark condition has been studied. Moreover, the value of kinetic parameters has been measured and the effect of adsorption on photocatalysis has been investigated here. Substantial removal was observed during the photocatalysis process, whereas 40% removal was possible through the adsorption route on TiO2 surface. The parametric variation has shown that alkaline pH, ambient temperature, low initial substrate concentration, high TiO2 loading were favourable, though at a certain concentration of TiO2 loading, photocatalytic degradation efficiency was found to be maximum. The adsorption study has shown good confirmation with Langmuir isotherm and during the reaction at initial stage, it followed pseudo-first-order reaction, after that Langmuir Hinshelwood model was found to be appropriate in describing the system. The present study also confirmed that there is a significant effect of adsorption on photocatalytic degradation. The possible mechanism for adsorption and photocatalysis has been shown here and process controlling step has been identified. The influences of pH and temperature have been explained with the help of surface charge distribution of reacting particles and thermodynamic point of view respectively.

Photocatalytic degradation of pharmaceutical wastes by alginate supported TiO2 nanoparticles in packed bed photo reactor (PBPR)

In recent years deposal of pharmaceutical wastes has become a major problem globally. Therefore, it is necessary to removes pharmaceutical waste from the municipal as well as industrial effluents before its discharge. The convectional wastewater and biological treatments are generally failed to separate different drugs from wastewater streams. Thus, heterogeneous photocatalysis process becomes lucrative method for reduction of detrimental effects of pharmaceutical compounds. The main disadvantage of the process is the reuse or recycle of photocatalysis is a tedious job. In this work, the degradation of aqueous solution of chlorhexidine digluconate (CHD), an antibiotic drug, by heterogeneous photocatalysis was study using supported TiO2 nanoparticle. The major concern of this study is to bring down the limitations of suspension mode heterogeneous photocatalysis by implementation of immobilized TiO2 with help of calcium alginate beads. The alginate supported catalyst beads was characterized by scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDAX) as well as the characteristic crystalline forms of TiO2 nanoparticle was confirmed by XRD. The degradation efficiency of TiO2 impregnated alginate beads (TIAB) was compared with the performance of free TiO2 suspension. Although, the degradation efficiency was reduced considerably using TIAB but the recycle and reuse of catalyst was increased quite appreciably. The kinetic parameters related to this work have also been measure. Moreover, to study the susceptibility of the present system photocatalysis of other three drugs ibuprofen (IBP), atenolol (ATL) and carbamazepine (CBZ) has been carried out using immobilized TiO2. The continuous mode operation in PBPR has ensured the applicability of alginate beads along with TiO2 in wastewater treatment. The variation of residence time has significant impact on the performance of PBPR.

Photocatalytic degradation of methamphetamine by UV/TiO2 - kinetics, intermediates, and products

Methamphetamine (MAT) is a prescription drug and often a substance of abuse. It is found in WWTP influents and effluents as well as surface waters in many regions, elevating concerns about their potential impact. MAT is not effectively removed by conventional processes of domestic wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). To contemplate advanced treatment, this study evaluates the feasibility of eliminating MAT by UV-illuminated TiO2, a potential retrofit to existing UV disinfection units. The degradation kinetics and mechanism of MAT by TiO2 under low-wattage UV illumination (9 W with maximum output at 365 nm) were investigated. Experimental parameters were varied including the TiO2 loading, MAT concentration, and pH. During treatment, MAT and its intermediates were tracked by HPLC-MS/MS, along with TOC and IC measurements to determine the mineralization extent. In contact with 0.1 g/L of TiO2 under illumination at pH 7, an entire spike amount of 100 μg/L of MAT was removed from deionized water after 3 min and 76 μg/L of MAT was removed from the secondary wastewater effluent after 30 min. The degradation of MAT followed an apparent first-order kinetics. Near complete mineralization of MAT from 10 mg/L was achieved in 180 min with 0.1 g/L of TiO2 at pH 5, by which the organic nitrogen was converted to NH4(+) and NO3(-). Based on identified intermediates, two degradation pathways were deduced that involved cleavage of the side chain as well as hydroxylation of the MAT compound. The photocatalytic UV/TiO2 process shows promise in arresting the release of MAT and its intermediate derivatives into the water environment.

Simple Response Surface Methodology: Investigation on Advance Photocatalytic Oxidation of 4-Chlorophenoxyacetic Acid Using UV-Active ZnO Photocatalyst

The performance of advance photocatalytic degradation of 4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid (4-CPA) strongly depends on photocatalyst dosage, initial concentration and initial pH. In the present study, a simple response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to investigate the interaction between these three independent factors. Thus, the photocatalytic degradation of 4-CPA in aqueous medium assisted by ultraviolet-active ZnO photocatalyst was systematically investigated. This study aims to determine the optimum processing parameters to maximize 4-CPA degradation. Based on the results obtained, it was found that a maximum of 91% of 4-CPA was successfully degraded under optimal conditions (0.02 g ZnO dosage, 20.00 mg/L of 4-CPA and pH 7.71). All the experimental data showed good agreement with the predicted results obtained from statistical analysis.

Photocatalytic degradation of imidacloprid in soil: application of response surface methodology for the optimization of parameters

The photocatalytic mineralization of imidacloprid (IMI) in soil to inorganic ions and the formation of various intermediates using TiO₂ as the photocatalyst have been investigated under UV light.

Enhancement of the photocatalytic activity of Ferrous Oxide by doping onto the nano-clinoptilolite particles towards photodegradation of tetracycline

Photodegradation of tetracycline (TC) aqueous solution by FeO doped onto nano-clinoptilolite particles was investigated using a high pressure Hg lamp as radiation source. Nano-particles of clinoptilolite were prepared using ball-milling of micro crystals of zeolite. The pretreated nano-particles ion exchanged in a ferrous solution and the Fe(II)-exchanged form was calcined at 450°C. All samples were characterized by FT-IR, DRS, SEM and XRD. The degradation extent was determined via UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy and COD. Based on the study of the effect of key operating parameters, the optimal conditions were determined to reach the higher efficiency of the process. The best photocatalytic activity was obtained in presence of the catalyst containing 5.4% FeO.

Novel mesoporous graphite carbon nitride/BiOI heterojunction for enhancing photocatalytic performance under visible-light irradiation

A novel organic-inorganic three-dimensional (3D) mesoporous graphite carbon nitride/BiOI (MCN/BiOI) heterojunction photocatalyst with excellent visible-light-driven photocatalytic performance was synthesized by a facile solvothermal method and used for degradation of bisphenol A (BPA) in water. After hybridization with MCN, a heterojunction was formed and the photogenerated carriers could be effectively separated by the internal electric field built at the heterojunction interface. The photocatalytic and photoelectrochemical performance of BiOI were improved and much higher than pure BiOI and MCN. The best photocatalytic performance was achieved with MCN proportion of 10%, and the kobs was approximately 1.6 times of pure BiOI and 3.4 times of MCN under simulated solar light irradiation, respectively. The photocurrent intensity generated by 10%-MCN/BiOI electrode was about 1.5 and 2.0 times of those induced by BiOI and MCN under visible-light irradiation, respectively. The superoxide radical species were predominant in the reaction system.

Involvement of process parameters and various modes of application of TiO2 nanoparticles in heterogeneous photocatalysis of pharmaceutical wastes – a short review

In recent years, the occurrence of persistent organic compounds in industrial as well as municipal effluents is becoming a serious threat to the environment. The detrimental effects can be minimized with the help of photocatalysis.

The visible light-driven photocatalytic degradation of Alizarin red S using Bi-doped TiO2 nanoparticles

Ultrasonic assisted sol–gel synthesized Bi-doped TiO₂ mesoporous nanoparticles with a good crystallinity and high surface area were prepared. The 1% Bi-doped TiO₂ catalyst showed the highest photocatalytic activity under visible light.

Photocatalytic degradation of carbofuran in TiO2 aqueous solution: kinetics using design of experiments and mechanism by HPLC/MS/MS

The photocatalytic degradation kinetics of carbofuran was optimized by central composite design based on response surface methodology for the first time. Three variables, TiO2 concentration, initial pH value and the concentration of carbofuran, were selected to determine the dependence of degradation efficiencies on independent variables. Response surface methodology modeling results indicated that the degradation efficiency of carbofuran was highly affected by the initial pH value and the concentration of carbofuran. Then nine degradation intermediates were detected by HPLC/MS/MS. The Frontier Electron Densities of carbofuran were calculated to predict the active sites on carbofuran attacked by hydroxyl radicals and photoholes. Point charges were used to elucidate the chemisorption pattern on TiO2 catalysts during the photocatalytic process. By combining the experimental results and calculation data, the photocatalytic degradation pathways of carbofuran were proposed, including the addition of hydroxyl radicals and the cleavage of the carbamate side chain.

Simultaneous monitoring of photocatalysis of three pharmaceuticals by immobilized TiO2 nanoparticles: chemometric assessment, intermediates identification and ecotoxicological evaluation

In this study, the photocatalytic degradation of a mixture of three pharmaceuticals, Metronidazole (MET), Atenolol (ATL) and Chlorpromazine (CPR), was quantified simultaneously during the UV/TiO2 process. The investigated TiO2 was Millennium PC-500 immobilized on ceramic plates by sol-gel based method. The partial least squares modeling was successfully applied for the multivariate calibration of the spectrophotometric data. The central composite design was applied to model and optimize the UV/TiO2 process. Predicted values of removal efficiency were found to be in good agreement with experimental values for MET, ATL and CPR (R(2)=0.947 and Adj-R(2)=0.906, R(2)=0.977 and Adj-R(2)=0.960 and R(2)=0.982 and Adj-R(2)=0.969, respectively). The optimum initial concentration of pharmaceuticals, reaction time and UV light intensity was found to be 10 mg L(-1), 150 min and 38.45 W m(-2), respectively. The main degradation intermediates of pharmaceuticals produced in this process were identified by GC-MS technique. The chronic ecotoxicity of pharmaceuticals was evaluated using aquatic species Spirodela polyrrhiza prior to and after photocatalysis. The TOC results (90% removal after 16 h) and ecotoxicological experiments revealed that the photocatalysis process could effectively mineralize and reduce the ecotoxicity of the pharmaceuticals from their aqueous solutions.

Preparation and characterization of palladium nano-crystallite decorated TiO₂ nano-tubes photoelectrode and its enhanced photocatalytic efficiency for degradation of diclofenac

TiO2 has been considered as a versatile candidate for the photoelectrochemical (PECH) application. In this study, Pd nano-crystallite decorated TiO₂ nano-tubes (Pd/TNTs) photoelectrode was prepared through electrochemical deposition. The resulting Pd/TNTs samples were characterized by SEM, XRD, DRS and XPS. It was found that the decorated Pd nano-crystallite existed in the form of Pd(0) with an average diameter of 30 nm, and could improve the light absorption in visible region. In addition, PECH properties of Pd/TNTs photoanode were investigated through transient open circuit potential, photocurrent response, electro-chemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and Mott-Schottky analysis. Moreover, the generation rate of hydroxyl radicals (•OH) was detected by a photoluminescence (PL) spectra using terephthalic acid (TA) as a probe molecule. Results showed that Pd/TNTs photoelectrode exhibited high transient photoinduced current of 0.094 mA cm(-2), open circuit photovoltage of -0.339 mV cm(-2) and effective photoelectrocatalytic (PEC) efficiency of 67.7% (0.4V vs. SCE) for the degradation of diclofenac (DCF). The high PC and PEC efficiency could mainly be attributed to the decoration of Pd nano-crystallite which could provide pathway for the transfer of photoinduced charge carriers. Furthermore, the contribution of series of active species was applied to clarify the enhanced PC mechanism.

TiO2-assisted photodegradation of pharmaceuticals — a review

Pharmaceutical compounds have been detected in the environment and potentially arise from the discharge of excreted and improperly disposed medication from sewage treatment facilities. In order to minimize environmental exposure of pharmaceutical residues, a potential technique to remove pharmaceuticals from water is the use of an advanced oxidation process (AOP) involving titanium dioxide (TiO2) photocatalysis. To evaluate the extent UV/TiO2 processes have been studied for pharmaceutical degradation, a literature search using the keywords ‘titanium dioxide’, ‘photocatalysis’, ‘advanced oxidation processes’, ‘pharmaceuticals’ and ‘degradation’ were used in the ISI Web of Knowledge TM, Scopus TM and ScienceDirect TM databases up to and including articles published on 23 November 2011. The degradation rates of pharmaceuticals under UV/TiO2 treatment were dependent on type and amount of TiO2 loading, pharmaceutical concentration, the presence of electron acceptors and pH. Complete mineralization under particular experimental conditions were reported for some pharmaceuticals; however, some experiments reported evolution of toxic intermediates during the photocatalytic process. It is concluded that the UV/TiO2 system is potentially a feasible wastewater treatment process, but careful consideration of the treatment time, the loading and the type of TiO2 (doped vs. undoped) used for a particular pharmaceutical is necessary for a successful application (198 words).