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Koludarov I, Sunagar K, Undheim EAB, Jackson TNW, Ruder T, Whitehead D, Saucedo AC, Mora GR, Alagon AC, King G, Antunes A, Fry BG. Structural and Molecular Diversification of the Anguimorpha Lizard Mandibular Venom Gland System in the Arboreal Species Abronia graminea. J Mol Evol 2012; 75:168-83. [DOI: 10.1007/s00239-012-9529-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Accepted: 10/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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52
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Jackson TNW, Casewell NR, Fry BG. Response to "Replies to Fry et al. (Toxicon 2012, 60/4, 434-448). Part A. Analyses of squamate reptile oral glands and their products: A call for caution in formal assignment of terminology designating biological function". Toxicon 2012; 64:106-12. [PMID: 23168161 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2012] [Revised: 11/03/2012] [Accepted: 11/08/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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53
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Lomonte B, Rangel J. Snake venom Lys49 myotoxins: From phospholipases A2 to non-enzymatic membrane disruptors. Toxicon 2012; 60:520-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2012] [Accepted: 02/23/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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54
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Sanz-Soler R, Lorente C, Company B, Sanz L, Juárez P, Pérez A, Zhang Y, Jin Y, Chen R, Eble JA, Calvete JJ, Bolás G. Recombinant expression of mutants of the Frankenstein disintegrin, RTS-ocellatusin. Evidence for the independent origin of RGD and KTS/RTS disintegrins. Toxicon 2012; 60:665-75. [PMID: 22677804 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2012] [Revised: 05/05/2012] [Accepted: 05/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The requirements to transform a short disintegrin of the RGD clade into an RTS disintegrin, were investigated through the generation of recombinant mutants of ocellatusin in which the RGD tripeptide was substituted for RTS in different positions along the integrin-specificity loop. Any attempt to create an active integrin α(1)β(1) inhibitory motif within the specificity loop of ocellatusin was unsuccessful. Replacing the whole RGD-loop of ocellatusin by the RTS-loop of jerdostatin was neither sufficient for confering α(1)β(1) binding specificity to this ocellatusin-RTS Frankenstein(2) mutant. Factors other than the integrin-binding loop sequence per se are thus required to transform a disintegrin scaffold from the RGD clade into another scaffold from the RTS/KTS clade. Moreover, our results provide evidences, that the RTS/KTS short disintegrins have potentially been recruited into the venom gland of Eurasian vipers independently from the canonical neofunctionalization pathway of the RGD disintegrins. PCR-amplifications of jerdostatin-like sequences from a number of taxa across reptiles, including snakes (Crotalinae, Viperinae, and Elapidae taxa) and lizards (Lacertidae and Iguanidae) clearly showed that genes coding for RTS/KTS disintegrins existed long before the split of Lacertidae and Iguania, thus predating the recruitment of the SVMP precursors of disintegrins, providing strong support for the view of an independent evolutionary history of the RTS/KTS and the RGD clades of short disintegrins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Sanz-Soler
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, C.S.I.C., Jaume Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain
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Sanz L, Harrison RA, Calvete JJ. First draft of the genomic organization of a PIII-SVMP gene. Toxicon 2012; 60:455-69. [PMID: 22543188 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.04.331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2012] [Revised: 03/27/2012] [Accepted: 04/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The evolutionary pathway of highly toxic proteins expressed in snake venom glands from proteins without toxic function and expressed in non-parotid tissues remains poorly understood. Here we examine gene structure of a representative of a venom protein with an ADAMs metalloproteinase evolutionary origin. The structure of the 15,652 bp Echis ocellatus pre-pro EOC00089-like PIII-SVMP gene was assembled from PCR-amplified sequences of overlapping genomic fragments. The gene comprises 12 exons interrupted by 11 introns. In a homology model of the EOC00089-like protein, the insertion of introns interrupting coding regions lie just after or between secondary structure elements. Long interspersed nuclear retroelements (LINE) L2/CR1 and RTE/Bov-B, short interspersed nuclear retroelements SINE/Sauria, and a hobo-activator DNA (Charlie, hAT) transposon were identified within introns 1, 3, 7 and 8. Pairwise amino acid sequence comparisons between EOC00089-like PIII-SVMP and its closest orthologs, ADAM28, from a mammal, Homo sapiens, and the lizard, Anolis carolinensis, showed that the ORFs of these three proteins share 42%/59%, 49%/69%, and 48%/65% (identity/similarity), respectively. The protein-coding positions interrupted by each of the 11 introns of the Echis PIII-SVMP gene are entirely conserved in the A. carolinensis and human ADAM28 genes. However, the lizard and the human ADAM28 genes contain 5 introns not present in the E. ocellatus gene. Furthermore, Echis and Anolis introns exhibit quantitatively and qualitatively distinctions in their inserted retroelements. These findings identify introns as possible key elements in the recruitment and amplification process of SVMPs into the venom gland of extant snakes. Ongoing reptile genome sequencing projects may shed light on this intriguing aspect of the emergence and evolution of venom toxin genes. Furthermore, the organization of the PIII-SVMP reported here provides a genomic explanation for the emergence of dimeric disintegrin subunits encoded by short messengers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Libia Sanz
- Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Valencia, Spain
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56
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Fry BG, Casewell NR, Wüster W, Vidal N, Young B, Jackson TNW. The structural and functional diversification of the Toxicofera reptile venom system. Toxicon 2012; 60:434-48. [PMID: 22446061 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2012] [Revised: 02/23/2012] [Accepted: 02/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The evolutionary origin and diversification of the reptilian venom system is described. The resolution of higher-order molecular phylogenetics has clearly established that a venom system is ancestral to snakes. The diversification of the venom system within lizards is discussed, as is the role of venom delivery in the behavioural ecology of these taxa (particularly Varanus komodoensis). The more extensive diversification of the venom system in snakes is summarised, including its loss in some clades. Finally, we discuss the contentious issue of a definition for "venom", supporting an evolutionary definition that recognises the homology of both the venom delivery systems and the toxins themselves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Research Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
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Sites JW, Reeder TW, Wiens JJ. Phylogenetic Insights on Evolutionary Novelties in Lizards and Snakes: Sex, Birth, Bodies, Niches, and Venom. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ECOLOGY EVOLUTION AND SYSTEMATICS 2011. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102710-145051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jack W. Sites
- Department of Biology and Bean Life Science Museum, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602-5181;
| | - Tod W. Reeder
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, California 92182-4614;
| | - John J. Wiens
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794-5245;
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58
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Moran Y, Genikhovich G, Gordon D, Wienkoop S, Zenkert C, Ozbek S, Technau U, Gurevitz M. Neurotoxin localization to ectodermal gland cells uncovers an alternative mechanism of venom delivery in sea anemones. Proc Biol Sci 2011; 279:1351-8. [PMID: 22048953 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2011.1731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Jellyfish, hydras, corals and sea anemones (phylum Cnidaria) are known for their venomous stinging cells, nematocytes, used for prey and defence. Here we show, however, that the potent Type I neurotoxin of the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis, Nv1, is confined to ectodermal gland cells rather than nematocytes. We demonstrate massive Nv1 secretion upon encounter with a crustacean prey. Concomitant discharge of nematocysts probably pierces the prey, expediting toxin penetration. Toxin efficiency in sea water is further demonstrated by the rapid paralysis of fish or crustacean larvae upon application of recombinant Nv1 into their medium. Analysis of other anemone species reveals that in Anthopleura elegantissima, Type I neurotoxins also appear in gland cells, whereas in the common species Anemonia viridis, Type I toxins are localized to both nematocytes and ectodermal gland cells. The nematocyte-based and gland cell-based envenomation mechanisms may reflect substantial differences in the ecology and feeding habits of sea anemone species. Overall, the immunolocalization of neurotoxins to gland cells changes the common view in the literature that sea anemone neurotoxins are produced and delivered only by stinging nematocytes, and raises the possibility that this toxin-secretion mechanism is an ancestral evolutionary state of the venom delivery machinery in sea anemones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yehu Moran
- Department of Molecular Biology and Ecology of Plants, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 69978 Tel Aviv, Israel.
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Profiling the venom gland transcriptomes of Costa Rican snakes by 454 pyrosequencing. BMC Genomics 2011; 12:259. [PMID: 21605378 PMCID: PMC3128066 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-12-259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2011] [Accepted: 05/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A long term research goal of venomics, of applied importance for improving current antivenom therapy, but also for drug discovery, is to understand the pharmacological potential of venoms. Individually or combined, proteomic and transcriptomic studies have demonstrated their feasibility to explore in depth the molecular diversity of venoms. In the absence of genome sequence, transcriptomes represent also valuable searchable databases for proteomic projects. RESULTS The venom gland transcriptomes of 8 Costa Rican taxa from 5 genera (Crotalus, Bothrops, Atropoides, Cerrophidion, and Bothriechis) of pitvipers were investigated using high-throughput 454 pyrosequencing. 100,394 out of 330,010 masked reads produced significant hits in the available databases. 5.165,220 nucleotides (8.27%) were masked by RepeatMasker, the vast majority of which corresponding to class I (retroelements) and class II (DNA transposons) mobile elements. BLAST hits included 79,991 matches to entries of the taxonomic suborder Serpentes, of which 62,433 displayed similarity to documented venom proteins. Strong discrepancies between the transcriptome-computed and the proteome-gathered toxin compositions were obvious at first sight. Although the reasons underlaying this discrepancy are elusive, since no clear trend within or between species is apparent, the data indicate that individual mRNA species may be translationally controlled in a species-dependent manner. The minimum number of genes from each toxin family transcribed into the venom gland transcriptome of each species was calculated from multiple alignments of reads matched to a full-length reference sequence of each toxin family. Reads encoding ORF regions of Kazal-type inhibitor-like proteins were uniquely found in Bothriechis schlegelii and B. lateralis transcriptomes, suggesting a genus-specific recruitment event during the early-Middle Miocene. A transcriptome-based cladogram supports the large divergence between A. mexicanus and A. picadoi, and a closer kinship between A. mexicanus and C. godmani. CONCLUSIONS Our comparative next-generation sequencing (NGS) analysis reveals taxon-specific trends governing the formulation of the venom arsenal. Knowledge of the venom proteome provides hints on the translation efficiency of toxin-coding transcripts, contributing thereby to a more accurate interpretation of the transcriptome. The application of NGS to the analysis of snake venom transcriptomes, may represent the tool for opening the door to systems venomics.
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60
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Calvete JJ, Sanz L, Pérez A, Borges A, Vargas AM, Lomonte B, Angulo Y, Gutiérrez JM, Chalkidis HM, Mourão RH, Furtado MFD, Moura-Da-Silva AM. Snake population venomics and antivenomics of Bothrops atrox: Paedomorphism along its transamazonian dispersal and implications of geographic venom variability on snakebite management. J Proteomics 2011; 74:510-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2011.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2010] [Revised: 12/28/2010] [Accepted: 01/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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61
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Petras D, Sanz L, Segura Á, Herrera M, Villalta M, Solano D, Vargas M, León G, Warrell DA, Theakston RDG, Harrison RA, Durfa N, Nasidi A, Gutiérrez JM, Calvete JJ. Snake Venomics of African Spitting Cobras: Toxin Composition and Assessment of Congeneric Cross-Reactivity of the Pan-African EchiTAb-Plus-ICP Antivenom by Antivenomics and Neutralization Approaches. J Proteome Res 2011; 10:1266-80. [DOI: 10.1021/pr101040f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Petras
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Jaume Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain
- Hochschule Darmstadt, Fachbereich Chemie und Biotechnologie, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Libia Sanz
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Jaume Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain
| | - Álvaro Segura
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - María Herrera
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Mauren Villalta
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Daniela Solano
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Mariángela Vargas
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Guillermo León
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - David A. Warrell
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - R. David G. Theakston
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Robert A. Harrison
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Juan J. Calvete
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Jaume Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain
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Jiang Y, Li Y, Lee W, Xu X, Zhang Y, Zhao R, Zhang Y, Wang W. Venom gland transcriptomes of two elapid snakes (Bungarus multicinctus and Naja atra) and evolution of toxin genes. BMC Genomics 2011; 12:1. [PMID: 21194499 PMCID: PMC3023746 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-12-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2010] [Accepted: 01/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Kraits (genus Bungarus) and cobras (genus Naja) are two representative toxic genera of elapids in the old world. Although they are closely related genera and both of their venoms are very toxic, the compositions of their venoms are very different. To unveil their detailed venoms and their evolutionary patterns, we constructed venom gland cDNA libraries and genomic bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) libraries for Bungarus multicinctus and Naja atra, respectively. We sequenced about 1500 cDNA clones for each of the venom cDNA libraries and screened BAC libraries of the two snakes by blot analysis using four kinds of toxin probes; i.e., three-finger toxin (3FTx), phospholipase A2 (PLA2), kunitz-type protease inhibitor (Kunitz), and natriuretic peptide (NP). RESULTS In total, 1092 valid expressed sequences tags (ESTs) for B. multicinctus and 1166 ESTs for N. atra were generated. About 70% of these ESTs can be annotated as snake toxin transcripts. 3FTx (64.5%) and β bungarotoxin (25.1%) comprise the main toxin classes in B. multicinctus, while 3FTx (95.8%) is the dominant toxin in N. atra. We also observed several less abundant venom families in B. multicinctus and N. atra, such as PLA2, C-type lectins, and Kunitz. Peculiarly a cluster of NP precursors with tandem NPs was detected in B. multicinctus. A total of 71 positive toxin BAC clones in B. multicinctus and N. atra were identified using four kinds of toxin probes (3FTx, PLA2, Kunitz, and NP), among which 39 3FTx-positive BACs were sequenced to reveal gene structures of 3FTx toxin genes. CONCLUSIONS Based on the toxin ESTs and 3FTx gene sequences, the major components of B. multicinctus venom transcriptome are neurotoxins, including long chain alpha neurotoxins (α-ntx) and the recently originated β bungarotoxin, whereas the N. atra venom transcriptome mainly contains 3FTxs with cytotoxicity and neurotoxicity (short chain α-ntx). The data also revealed that tandem duplications contributed the most to the expansion of toxin multigene families. Analysis of nonsynonymous to synonymous nucleotide substitution rate ratios (dN/dS) indicates that not only multigene toxin families but also other less abundant toxins might have been under rapid diversifying evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Jiang
- CAS-Max Planck Junior Research Group, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, China
- Graduate University of Chinese Academy Sciences, Beijing 100039, China
| | - Yan Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University, Sichuan 625014, China
| | - Wenhui Lee
- Biotoxin Units, Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, China
| | - Xun Xu
- CAS-Max Planck Junior Research Group, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, China
| | - Yue Zhang
- CAS-Max Planck Junior Research Group, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, China
| | - Ruoping Zhao
- CAS-Max Planck Junior Research Group, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, China
| | - Yun Zhang
- Biotoxin Units, Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, China
| | - Wen Wang
- CAS-Max Planck Junior Research Group, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, China
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63
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Fry BG, Winter K, Norman JA, Roelants K, Nabuurs RJA, van Osch MJP, Teeuwisse WM, van der Weerd L, McNaughtan JE, Kwok HF, Scheib H, Greisman L, Kochva E, Miller LJ, Gao F, Karas J, Scanlon D, Lin F, Kuruppu S, Shaw C, Wong L, Hodgson WC. Functional and structural diversification of the Anguimorpha lizard venom system. Mol Cell Proteomics 2010; 9:2369-90. [PMID: 20631207 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m110.001370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Venom has only been recently discovered to be a basal trait of the Anguimorpha lizards. Consequently, very little is known about the timings of toxin recruitment events, venom protein molecular evolution, or even the relative physical diversifications of the venom system itself. A multidisciplinary approach was used to examine the evolution across the full taxonomical range of this ∼130 million-year-old clade. Analysis of cDNA libraries revealed complex venom transcriptomes. Most notably, three new cardioactive peptide toxin types were discovered (celestoxin, cholecystokinin, and YY peptides). The latter two represent additional examples of convergent use of genes in toxic arsenals, both having previously been documented as components of frog skin defensive chemical secretions. Two other novel venom gland-overexpressed modified versions of other protein frameworks were also recovered from the libraries (epididymal secretory protein and ribonuclease). Lectin, hyaluronidase, and veficolin toxin types were sequenced for the first time from lizard venoms and shown to be homologous to the snake venom forms. In contrast, phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that the lizard natriuretic peptide toxins were recruited independently of the form in snake venoms. The de novo evolution of helokinestatin peptide toxin encoding domains within the lizard venom natriuretic gene was revealed to be exclusive to the helodermatid/anguid subclade. New isoforms were sequenced for cysteine-rich secretory protein, kallikrein, and phospholipase A(2) toxins. Venom gland morphological analysis revealed extensive evolutionary tinkering. Anguid glands are characterized by thin capsules and mixed glands, serous at the bottom of the lobule and mucous toward the apex. Twice, independently this arrangement was segregated into specialized serous protein-secreting glands with thick capsules with the mucous lobules now distinct (Heloderma and the Lanthanotus/Varanus clade). The results obtained highlight the importance of utilizing evolution-based search strategies for biodiscovery and emphasize the largely untapped drug design and development potential of lizard venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan G Fry
- Venomics Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
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Evolution of Conus peptide toxins: analysis of Conus californicus Reeve, 1844. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2010; 56:1-12. [PMID: 20363338 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2010.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2008] [Revised: 03/26/2010] [Accepted: 03/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Conus species are characterized by their hyperdiverse toxins, encoded by a few gene superfamilies. Our phylogenies of the genus, based on mitochondrial genes, confirm previous results that C. californicus is highly divergent from all other species. Genetic and biochemical analysis of their venom peptides comprise the fifteen most abundant conopeptides and over 50 mature cDNA transcripts from the venom duct. Although C. californicus venom retains many of the general properties of other Conus species, they share only half of the toxin gene superfamilies found in other Conus species. Thus, in these two lineages, approximately half of the rapidly diversifying gene superfamilies originated after an early Tertiary split. Such results demonstrate that, unlike endogenously acting gene families, these genes are likely to be significantly more restricted in their phylogenetic distribution. In concordance with the evolutionary distance of C. californicus from other species, there are aspects of prey-capture behavior and prey preferences of this species that diverges significantly from all other Conus.
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65
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Kwok HF, Ivanyi C, Morris A, Shaw C. Proteomic and Genomic Studies on Lizard Venoms in the Last Decade. PROTEOMICS INSIGHTS 2010. [DOI: 10.4137/pri.s3693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Traditionally man has looked to nature to provide cures for diseases. This approach still exists today in the form of ‘bio-prospecting’ for therapeutically-active compounds in venoms. For example, the venoms of many reptiles offer a spectacular laboratory of bioactive molecules, including peptides and proteins. In the last 10–15 years, there have been a number of major proteomic and genomic research breakthroughs on lizard venoms. In this current review, the key findings from these proteomic and genomic studies will be critically discussed and suggestions will be offered for future focused investigations. It is our intention that this article will not only provide a comprehensive picture of the state of current knowledge of the components of lizard venoms, but also engender awareness in readers of the need to protect and conserve such uniquely precious natural resources for several reasons, including the potential benefit of humankind.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hang Fai Kwok
- Molecular Therapeutics Research, School of Pharmacy, Queen's University Belfast, Northern Ireland BT9 7BL, U.K
| | - Craig Ivanyi
- Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, 2021 North Kinney Road, Tucson, Arizona 85743 U.S.A
| | - Andrew Morris
- School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Jalan Broga, 43500 Semenyih, Malaysia
| | - Chris Shaw
- Molecular Therapeutics Research, School of Pharmacy, Queen's University Belfast, Northern Ireland BT9 7BL, U.K
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66
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Abstract
Snake bite is a common and frequently devastating environmental and occupational disease, especially in rural areas of tropical developing countries. Its public health importance has been largely ignored by medical science. Snake venoms are rich in protein and peptide toxins that have specificity for a wide range of tissue receptors, making them clinically challenging and scientifically fascinating, especially for drug design. Although the full burden of human suffering attributable to snake bite remains obscure, hundreds of thousands of people are known to be envenomed and tens of thousands are killed or maimed by snakes every year. Preventive efforts should be aimed towards education of affected communities to use proper footwear and to reduce the risk of contact with snakes to a minimum through understanding of snakes' behaviour. To treat envenoming, the production and clinical use of antivenom must be improved. Increased collaboration between clinicians, epidemiologists, and laboratory toxinologists should enhance the understanding and treatment of envenoming.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Warrell
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK.
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67
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Calvete JJ, Sanz L, Angulo Y, Lomonte B, Gutiérrez JM. Venoms, venomics, antivenomics. FEBS Lett 2009; 583:1736-43. [PMID: 19303875 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2009.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 255] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2009] [Revised: 03/12/2009] [Accepted: 03/13/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Venoms comprise mixtures of peptides and proteins tailored by Natural Selection to act on vital systems of the prey or victim. Here we review our proteomic protocols for uncoiling the composition, immunological profile, and evolution of snake venoms. Our long-term goal is to gain a deep insight of all viperid venom proteomes. Knowledge of the inter- and intraspecies ontogenetic, individual, and geographic venom variability has applied importance for the design of immunization protocols aimed at producing more effective polyspecific antivenoms. A practical consequence of assessing the cross-reactivity of heterologous antivenoms is the possibility of circumventing the restricted availability of species-specific antivenoms in some regions. Further, the high degree of target specificity makes toxins valuable scaffolds for drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan J Calvete
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, C.S.I.C., Jaume Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain.
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Calvete JJ. Venomics: Digging into the evolution of venomous systems and learning to twist nature to fight pathology. J Proteomics 2009; 72:121-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2009.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2009] [Accepted: 01/19/2009] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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