Aquaporin-embedded biomimetic membranes for nanofiltration

A reduced graphene oxide nanofiltration membrane intercalated by well-dispersed carbon nanotubes for drinking water purification

In this study, we report a promising rGO-CNT hybrid nanofiltration (NF) membrane that was fabricated by loading reduced graphene oxide that was intercalated with carbon nanotubes (rGO-CNTs) onto an anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) microfiltration membrane via a facile vacuum-assisted filtration process. To create this NF membrane, the CNTs were first dispersed using block copolymers (BCPs); the effects of the types and contents of BCPs used on the dispersion of CNTs have been investigated. The as-prepared rGO-CNT hybrid NF membranes were then used for drinking water purification to retain the nanoparticles, dyes, proteins, organophosphates, sugars, and particularly humic acid. Experimentally, it is shown that the rGO-CNT hybrid NF membranes have high retention efficiency, good permeability and good anti-fouling properties. The retention was above 97.3% even for methyl orange (327 Da); for other objects, the retention was above 99%. The membrane's permeability was found to be as high as 20-30 L m(-2) h(-1) bar(-1). Based on these results, we can conclude that (i) the use of BCPs as a surfactant can enhance steric repulsion and thus disperse CNTs effectively; (ii) placing well-dispersed 1D CNTs within 2D graphene sheets allows an uniform network to form, which can provide many mass transfer channels through the continuous 3D nanostructure, resulting in the high permeability and separation performance of the rGO-CNT hybrid NF membranes.

Impact of monoolein on aquaporin1-based supported lipid bilayer membranes

Aquaporin (AQP) based biomimetic membranes have attracted considerable attention for their potential water purification applications. In this paper, AQP1 incorporated biomimetic membranes were prepared and characterized. The morphology and structure of the biomimetic membranes were characterized by in situ atomic force microscopy (AFM), infrared absorption spectroscopy, fluorescence microscopy, and contact angle measurements. The nanofiltration performance of the AQP1 incorporated membranes was investigated at 4 bar by using 2 g l^-1 NaCl as feed solution. Lipid mobility plays an important role in the performance of the AQP1 incorporated supported lipid bilayer (SLB) membranes. We demonstrated that the lipid mobility is successfully tuned by the addition of monoolein (MO). Through in situ AFM and fluorescence recovery after photo-bleaching (FRAP) measurements, the membrane morphology and the molecular mobility were studied. The lipid mobility increased in the sequence DPPC < DPPC/MO (R_MO = 5/5) < DOPC/MO (R_MO = 5/5) < DOPC, which is consistent with the flux increment and salt rejection. This study may provide some useful insights for improving the water purification performance of biomimetic membranes.

Aquaporin-Based Biomimetic Polymeric Membranes: Approaches and Challenges

In recent years, aquaporin biomimetic membranes (ABMs) for water separation have gained considerable interest. Although the first ABMs are commercially available, there are still many challenges associated with further ABM development. Here, we discuss the interplay of the main components of ABMs: aquaporin proteins (AQPs), block copolymers for AQP reconstitution, and polymer-based supporting structures. First, we briefly cover challenges and review recent developments in understanding the interplay between AQP and block copolymers. Second, we review some experimental characterization methods for investigating AQP incorporation including freeze-fracture transmission electron microscopy, fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, stopped-flow light scattering, and small-angle X-ray scattering. Third, we focus on recent efforts in embedding reconstituted AQPs in membrane designs that are based on conventional thin film interfacial polymerization techniques. Finally, we describe some new developments in interfacial polymerization using polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane cages for increasing the physical and chemical durability of thin film composite membranes.

Layer-by-layer assembly of aquaporin Z-incorporated biomimetic membranes for water purification

We fabricated a biomimetic nanofiltration (NF) membrane by immobilizing an Aquaporin Z (AqpZ)-incorporated supported lipid bilayer (SLB) on a layer-by-layer (LbL) complex polyelectrolyte membrane to achieve excellent permeability and salt rejection with a high stability. The polyelectrolyte membranes were prepared by LbL assembly of poly(ethylenimine) (PEI) with positive charges and poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate) (PSS) with negative charges alternately on a porous hydrolyzed polyacrylonitrile (H-PAN) substrate. AqpZ-incorporated 1,2-dioleloyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC)/1,2-dioleoyl-3-trimethylammo-nium-propane (chloride salt) (DOTAP) vesicles with positive charges were deposited on the H-PAN/PEI/PSS polyelectrolytes membrane surface. The resulting biomimetic membrane exhibited a high flux of 22 L·m(-2)·h(-1) (LMH), excellent MgCl2 rejection of ∼97% and NaCl rejection of ∼75% under an operation pressure of 0.4 MPa. Due to the attractive electrostatic interaction between SLB and the polyelectrolyte membrane, the biomimetic membrane showed satisfactory stability and durability as well as stable NF flux and rejection for at least 36 h. In addition, the AqpZ-containing biomimetic membrane was immersed in a 0.24 mM (critical micellar concentration, CMC) Triton X-100 solution for 5 min. The flux and rejection were slightly influenced by the Triton X-100 treatment. The current investigation demonstrated that the AqpZ-incorporated biomimetic membranes fabricated by the LbL method led to excellent separation performances and robust structures that withstand a high operation pressure for a relatively long time.

Selecting analytical tools for characterization of polymersomes in aqueous solution

We present 17 techniques to analyze polymersomes, in terms of their size, bilayer properties, elastic properties or surface charge.

From natural to bioassisted and biomimetic artificial water channel systems

Within biological systems, natural channels and pores transport metabolites across the cell membranes. Researchers have explored artificial ion-channel architectures as potential mimics of natural ionic conduction. All these synthetic systems have produced an impressive collection of alternative artificial ion-channels. Amazingly, researchers have made far less progress in the area of synthetic water channels. The development of synthetic biomimetic water channels and pores could contribute to a better understanding of the natural function of protein channels and could offer new strategies to generate highly selective, advanced water purification systems. Despite the imaginative work by synthetic chemists to produce sophisticated architectures that confine water clusters, most synthetic water channels have used natural proteins channels as the selectivity components, embedded in the diverse arrays of bioassisted artificial systems. These systems combine natural proteins that present high water conductance states under natural conditions with artificial lipidic or polymeric matrixes. Experimental results have demonstrated that natural biomolecules can be used as bioassisted building blocks for the construction of highly selective water transport through artificial membranes. A next step to further the potential of these systems was the design and construction of simpler compounds that maintain the high conduction activity obtained with natural compounds leading to fully synthetic artificial biomimetic systems. Such studies aim to use constitutional selective artificial superstructures for water/proton transport to select functions similar to the natural structures. Moving to simpler water channel systems offers a chance to better understand mechanistic and structural behaviors and to uncover novel interactive water-channels that might parallel those in biomolecular systems. This Account discusses the incipient development of the first artificial water channels systems. We include only systems that integrate synthetic elements in their water selective translocation unit. Therefore, we exclude peptide channels because their sequences derive from the proteins in natural channels. We review many of the natural systems involved in water and related proton transport processes. We describe how these systems can fit within our primary goal of maintaining natural function within bioassisted artificial systems. In the last part of the Account, we present several inspiring breakthroughs from the last decade in the field of biomimetic artificial water channels. Researchers have synthesized and tested hydrophobic, hydrophilic and hybrid nanotubular systems. All these examples demonstrate how the novel interactive water-channels can parallel biomolecular systems. At the same time these simpler artificial water channels offer a means of understanding the molecular-scale hydrodynamics of water for many biological scenarios.

Recent Progress in Advanced Nanobiological Materials for Energy and Environmental Applications

In this review, we briefly introduce our efforts to reconstruct cellular life processes by mimicking natural systems and the applications of these systems to energy and environmental problems. Functional units of in vitro cellular life processes are based on the fabrication of artificial organelles using protein-incorporated polymersomes and the creation of bioreactors. This concept of an artificial organelle originates from the first synthesis of poly(siloxane)-poly(alkyloxazoline) block copolymers three decades ago and the first demonstration of protein activity in the polymer membrane a decade ago. The increased value of biomimetic polymers results from many research efforts to find new applications such as functionally active membranes and a biochemical-producing polymersome. At the same time, foam research has advanced to the point that biomolecules can be efficiently produced in the aqueous channels of foam. Ongoing research includes replication of complex biological processes, such as an artificial Calvin cycle for application in biofuel and specialty chemical production, and carbon dioxide sequestration. We believe that the development of optimally designed biomimetic polymers and stable/biocompatible bioreactors would contribute to the realization of the benefits of biomimetic systems. Thus, this paper seeks to review previous research efforts, examine current knowledge/key technical parameters, and identify technical challenges ahead.

Fusion of bolaamphiphile micelles: a method to prepare stable supported biomimetic membranes

Supported biomimetic membranes (SBMs) on solid substrates have been commonly prepared from vesicle-forming double-tail lipids, such as zwitterionic phospholipids, using the method of vesicle fusion. Here we report on the preparation of SBMs on silica surfaces via a similar process of "micelle fusion" from a cationic single-tail bolaamphiphile GLH-20 that forms spherical and elongated thread-like micelles in solution. We demonstrate that, in contrast to zwitterionic phospholipids, GLH-20 self-assembles into a stable contiguous SBM at both low and high ionic strengths. The cationic charge of GLH-20 promotes the formation of a stable SBM through enhanced double-layer interactions with the negatively charged silica surface. It is also shown that spinach aquaporin PM-28 was successfully incorporated within bolaamphiphile SBM in a manner similar to SBMs prepared by vesicle/proteoliposome fusion; thereby the inherent curvature of the micelle surface does not inhibit protein reconstitution. The results suggest that SBMs based on charged bolaamphiphiles might be an attractive platform for applications such as water purification and biosensors, where the stability and low defect rate of SBMs in diverse conditions are crucial for achieving desired performance.

Stabilization and immobilization of aquaporin reconstituted lipid vesicles for water purification

Aquaporins are water channel proteins in biological membranes that have extraordinary water permeability and selectivity. In this work, we have demonstrated that one of their family members, AquaporinZ (AqpZ), can be possibly applied in a pressure-driven water purification process. A nanofiltration membrane was designed and fabricated by immobilization of AqpZ-reconstituted liposomes on a polydopamine (PDA) coated microporous membrane. Amine-functionalized proteoliposomes were first deposited via gentle vacuum suction and subsequently conjugated on the PDA layer via an amine-catechol adduct formation. Due to the existence of a polymer network within the lipid bilayers, the membrane could sustain hydraulic pressure of 5 bar as well as the strong surface agitation in nanofiltration tests, indicating a relatively stable membrane structure. In comparison with membrane without AqpZ incorporation, the membrane with AqpZ-to-lipid weight ratio of 1:100 increased the water flux by 65% with enhanced NaCl and MgCl(2) rejections of 66.2% and 88.1%, respectively. With AqpZ incorporation, the vesicle immobilized membrane exhibits a promising strategy for high productivity water purification.

Microbial relevant fouling in membrane bioreactors: influencing factors, characterization, and fouling control

Microorganisms in membrane bioreactors (MBRs) play important roles on degradation of organic/inorganic substances in wastewaters, while microbial deposition/growth and microbial product accumulation on membranes potentially induce membrane fouling. Generally, there is a need to characterize membrane foulants and to determine their relations to the evolution of membrane fouling in order to identify a suitable fouling control approach in MBRs. This review summarized the factors in MBRs that influence microbial behaviors (community compositions, physical properties, and microbial products). The state-of-the-art techniques to characterize biofoulants in MBRs were reported. The strategies for controlling microbial relevant fouling were discussed and the future studies on membrane fouling mechanisms in MBRs were proposed.