Characterization of nanomaterials in food by electron microscopy

Nanometrology and its perspectives in environmental research

OBJECTIVES

Rapid increase in engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) in many goods has raised significant concern about their environmental safety. Proper methodologies are therefore needed to conduct toxicity and exposure assessment of nanoparticles in the environment. This study reviews several analytical techniques for nanoparticles and summarizes their principles, advantages and disadvantages, reviews the state of the art, and offers the perspectives of nanometrology in relation to ENP studies.

METHODS

Nanometrology is divided into five techniques with regard to the instrumental principle: microscopy, light scattering, spectroscopy, separation, and single particle inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Each analytical method has its own drawbacks, such as detection limit, ability to quantify or qualify ENPs, and matrix effects. More than two different analytical methods should be used to better characterize ENPs.

CONCLUSIONS

In characterizing ENPs, the researchers should understand the nanometrology and its demerits, as well as its merits, to properly interpret their experimental results. Challenges lie in the nanometrology and pretreatment of ENPs from various matrices; in the extraction without dissolution or aggregation, and concentration of ENPs to satisfy the instrumental detection limit.

Measurement Methods to Detect, Characterize, and Quantify Engineered Nanomaterials in Foods

This article is one of a series of 4 that reports on a task of the NanoRelease Food Additive project of the International Life Science Institute Center for Risk Science Innovation and Application to identify, evaluate, and develop methods that are needed to confidently detect, characterize, and quantify intentionally produced engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) released from food along the alimentary tract. This particular article focuses on the problem of detecting ENMs in food, paying special attention to matrix interferences and how to deal with them. In this review, an in-depth analysis of the literature related to detection of ENMs in complex matrices is presented. The literature review includes discussions of sampling methods, such as centrifugation and ENM extraction. Available analytical methods, as well as emerging methods, are also presented. The article concludes with a summary of findings and an overview of potential knowledge gaps and targets for method development in this area.

Characterization of food-grade titanium dioxide: the presence of nanosized particles

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is widely used in food products, which will eventually enter wastewater treatment plants and terrestrial or aquatic environments, yet little is known about the fraction of this TiO2 that is nanoscale, or the physical and chemical properties of TiO2 that influence its human and environmental fate or toxicity. Instead of analyzing TiO2 properties in complex food or environmental samples, we procured samples of food-grade TiO2 obtained from global food suppliers and then, using spectroscopic and other analytical techniques, quantified several parameters (elemental composition, crystal structure, size, and surface composition) that are reported to influence environmental fate and toxicity. Another sample of nano-TiO2 that is generally sold for catalytic applications (P25) and widely used in toxicity studies, was analyzed for comparison. Food-grade and P25 TiO2 are engineered products, frequently synthesized from purified titanium precursors, and not milled from bulk scale minerals. Nanosized materials were present in all of the food-grade TiO2 samples, and transmission electron microscopy showed that samples 1-5 contained 35, 23, 21, 17, and 19% of nanosized primary particles (<100 nm in diameter) by number, respectively (all primary P25 particles were <100 nm in diameter). Both types of TiO2 aggregated in water with an average hydrodynamic diameter of >100 nm. Food-grade samples contained phosphorus (P), with concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 1.8 mg of P/g of TiO2. The phosphorus content of P25 was below inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry detection limits. Presumably because of a P-based coating detected by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, the ζ potential of the food-grade TiO2 suspension in deionized water ranged from -10 to -45 mV around pH 7, and the iso-electric point for food-grade TiO2 (<pH 4) was significantly lower than that for P25. The presence of other elements in or on the TiO2 (Si content of 0.026-0.062% and Al content of 0.0006-0.810%) was also different from the case for P25 and would influence the environmental fate of TiO2. X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed the presence of anatase and/or rutile in the food-grade materials, and although the presence of amorphous TiO2 could not be ruled out, it is unlikely on the basis of Raman analysis. The food-grade TiO2 was solar photoactive. Cationic dyes adsorbed more readily to food-grade TiO2 than P25, indicating very different potentials for interaction with organics in the environment. This research shows that food-grade TiO2 contains engineered nanomaterials with properties quite different from those of P25, which has previously been used in many ecotoxicity studies, and because food-grade TiO2 is more likely than P25 to enter the environment (i.e., potentially higher exposure levels), there is a need to design environmental (and human) fate and toxicity studies comparing food-grade to catalytic TiO2.

Cryo-SEM images of native milk fat globule indicate small casein micelles are constituents of the membrane

Schematic representation of the native milk fat globule membrane: casein micelles and whey proteins on the surface of the membrane.

Progress in the characterization and safety evaluation of engineered inorganic nanomaterials in food

Nanotechnology has stepped into the food industry, from the farm to the table at home, in order to improve the taste and nutritional value, extend the shelf-life and monitor the food quality. In fact, as consumers we have already been in contact, via oral exposure, with a number of food products containing engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) more often than most people think. However, the fate of ENMs after entering the GI tract of the human body is not yet clearly understood. Hence, the related safety issue is raised, and attracts much attention and wide debate from the public, even including protest demonstrations against nanotechnology in food. In this review, we summarize the up-to-date information about the characterization and safety evaluation of common inorganic ENMs (with a focus on silver, titanium dioxide, silica and zinc oxide nanoparticles) in food. Based on the literature, a whole scenario of the safety issue of these ENMs in food and an outlook on the future studies are given.

Engineered nanoparticle adhesion and removal from tomato surfaces

Engineered nanoparticles (NPs) are being used in different industries due to their unique physicochemical properties. NPs may be toxic and could pose both public health and environmental contamination risks. In this study, two concentrations (50 and 500 μg mL(-1)) of titania (TiO2), silica (SiO2), and alumina (Al2O3) were applied to contaminate the surface of cherry tomato as a food model, followed by washing with deionized water (DI) to remove the NPs from the tomato surfaces. The NP surface charge and hydrodynamic diameter results showed that the isoelectric point (IEP) for alumina was at pH 9-9.6, for silica at pH <3, and for titania was at pH 6.5-6.8; in addition, the highest hydrodynamic size for all NPs was observed at the IEP. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) indicated that the highest NP concentration was observed on tomato surfaces contaminated at the higher concentration (500 μg mL(-1)) (P < 0.05). After the tomatoes had been washed with DI, alumina levels decreased significantly, whereas for titania and silica, no significant difference in NP concentration on tomato surface was observed following the washing treatment. This study shows that removal of NPs may be possible with a simple washing treatment but that removal of NPs is likely to be more effective when the moment ratio is >1, which can occur if the pH of the washing solution is significantly different from the IEP of NPs.

State of the art in human risk assessment of silver compounds in consumer products: a conference report on silver and nanosilver held at the BfR in 2012

In light of the broad spectrum of products containing nanosilver, the harmfulness of nanosilver to human health and the environment was intensively discussed at a conference held in February 2012 at the BfR. The conference agenda covered the aspects of analytics of nanosilver materials, human exposure and toxicology as well as effects on microorganisms and the environment. The discussion recovered major gaps related to commonly agreed guidelines for sample preparation and central analytical techniques. In particular, the characterization of the nanoparticles in complex matrices was regarded as a challenge which might become a pitfall for further innovation and application. Historical and anecdotal records of colloidal silver have been sometimes taken as empirical proof for the general low toxicity of nanosilver. Yet as reported herein, a growing number of animal studies following modern performance standards of toxicity testing have been carried out recently revealing well-characterized adverse effects on different routes of exposure in addition to argyria. Furthermore, recent approaches in exposure assessment were reported. However, consumer exposure scenarios are only starting to be developed and reliable exposure data are still rare. It was further widely agreed on the workshop that the use of silver may lead to the selection of silver resistant bacteria. With respect to its environmental behavior, it was suggested that nanosilver released to wastewater may have negligible ecotoxicological effects. Finally, the presentations and discussion on risk assessment and regulation of nanosilver applications gave insights into different approaches of risk assessment of nanomaterials to be performed under the various regulatory frameworks.

Advanced Analytical Techniques for the Measurement of Nanomaterials in Food and Agricultural Samples: A Review

Nanotechnology offers substantial prospects for the development of state-of-the-art products and applications for agriculture, water treatment, and food industry. Profuse use of nanoproducts will bring potential benefits to farmers, the food industry, and consumers, equally. However, after end-user applications, these products and residues will find their way into the environment. Therefore, discharged nanomaterials (NMs) need to be identified and quantified to determine their ecotoxicity and the levels of exposure. Detection and characterization of NMs and their residues in the environment, particularly in food and agricultural products, have been limited, as no single technique or method is suitable to identify and quantify NMs. In this review, we have discussed the available literature concerning detection, characterization, and measurement techniques for NMs in food and agricultural matrices, which include chromatography, flow field fractionation, electron microscopy, light scattering, and autofluorescence techniques, among others.

Silver nanoparticles in the environment

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are well known for their excellent antibacterial ability and superior physical properties, and are widely used in a growing number of applications ranging from home disinfectants and medical devices to water purificants. However, with the accelerating production and introduction of AgNPs into commercial products, there is likelihood of release into the environment, which raises health and environmental concerns. This article provides a critical review of the state-of-knowledge about AgNPs, involving the history, analysis, source, fate and transport, and potential risks of AgNPs. Although great efforts have been made in each of these aspects, there are still many questions to be answered to reach a comprehensive understanding of the positive and negative effects of AgNPs. In order to fully investigate the fate and transport of AgNPs in the environment, appropriate methods for the preconcentration, separation and speciation of AgNPs should be developed, and analytical tools for the characterization and detection of AgNPs in complicated environmental samples are also urgently needed. To elucidate the environmental transformation of AgNPs, the behavior of AgNPs should be thoroughly monitored in complex environmental relevant conditions. Furthermore, additional in vivo toxicity studies should be carried out to understand the exact toxicity mechanism of AgNPs, and to predict the health effects to humans.

Analysis of engineered nanomaterials in complex matrices (environment and biota): general considerations and conceptual case studies

Advances in the study of the environmental fate, transport, and ecotoxicological effects of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) have been hampered by a lack of adequate techniques for the detection and quantification of ENMs at environmentally relevant concentrations in complex media. Analysis of ENMs differs from traditional chemical analysis because both chemical and physical forms must be considered. Because ENMs are present as colloidal systems, their physicochemical properties are dependent on their surroundings. Therefore, the simple act of trying to isolate, observe, and quantify ENMs may change their physicochemical properties, making analysis extremely susceptible to artifacts. Many analytical techniques applied in materials science and other chemical/biological/physical disciplines may be applied to ENM analysis as well; however, environmental and biological studies may require that methods be adapted to work at low concentrations in complex matrices. The most pressing research needs are the development of techniques for extraction, cleanup, separation, and sample storage that introduce minimal artifacts to increase the speed, sensitivity, and specificity of analytical techniques, as well as the development of techniques that can differentiate between abundant, naturally occurring particles, and manufactured nanoparticles.