Autonomy of cell proliferation and developmental programs during Arabidopsis aboveground organ morphogenesis

Regulation of leaf organ size by the Arabidopsis RPT2a 19S proteasome subunit

The ubiquitin/26S proteasome pathway plays a central role in the degradation of short-lived regulatory proteins, to control many cellular events. To further understand this pathway, we focused on the RPT2 subunit of the 26S proteasome regulatory particle. The Arabidopsis genome contains two genes, AtRPT2a and AtRPT2b, which encode paralog molecules of the RPT2 subunit, with a difference of only three amino acids in the protein sequences. Both genes showed similar mRNA accumulation patterns. However, the rpt2a mutant showed a specific phenotype of enlarged leaves caused by increased cell size, in correlation with increased ploidy. Detailed analyses revealed that cell expansion is increased in the rpt2a mutant by extended endoreduplication early in leaf development. The transcription of genes encoding cell cycle-related components, for DNA replication licensing and the G2/M phase, was also promoted in the rpt2a mutant, suggesting that extended endoreduplication was caused by increased DNA replication, and disrupted regulation of the G2/M checkpoint, at the proliferation stage of leaf development.

FZR2/CCS52A1 expression is a determinant of endoreduplication and cell expansion in Arabidopsis

Endoreduplication, a modified cell cycle that allows cells to increase ploidy without subsequent cell division, is a key component of plant growth and development. In this work, we show that some, but not all, of the endoreduplication of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) is mediated by the expression of a WD40 gene, FIZZY-RELATED2 (FZR2). Loss-of-function alleles show reduced endoreduplication and reduced expansion in trichomes and other leaf cells. Misexpression of FZR2 is sufficient to drive ectopic or extra endoreduplication in leaves, roots, and flowers, leading to alteration of cell sizes and, sometimes, organ size and shape. Our data, which suggest that reduced cell size can be compensated by increased cell proliferation to allow normal leaf morphology, are discussed with respect to the so-called compensation mechanism of plant development.

New clues to organ size control in plants

A review of the mechanisms that control organ size in plants.

Plant growth has unparalleled importance for human civilization, yet we are only starting to gain an understanding of its mechanisms. The growth rate and final size of plant organs is determined by both genetic constraints and environmental factors. Regulatory inputs act at two control points: on proliferation; and on the transition between proliferation and differentiation. Cell-autonomous and short-range growth signals act within meristematic domains, whereas diffusible signals from differentiated parts to proliferating cells provide measures of geometry and size and channel environmental inputs.

Degradation of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor KRP1 is regulated by two different ubiquitin E3 ligases

In animals and fungi, a group of proteins called the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors play a key role in cell cycle regulation. However, comparatively little is known about the role of these proteins in plant cell cycle regulation. To gain insight into the mechanisms by which the plant cell cycle is regulated, we studied the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor KRP1 in Arabidopsis. KRP1 interacts with the CDKA;1/CYCD2;1 complex in planta and functions in the G1-S transition of the cell cycle. Furthermore, we show that KRP1 is a likely target of the ubiquitin/proteasome pathway. Two different ubiquitin protein ligases, SCF(SKP2) and the RING protein RKP, contribute to its degradation. These results suggest that SCF(SKP2b) and RPK play an important role in the cell cycle through regulating KRP1 protein turnover.

Cell division and endoreduplication: doubtful engines of vegetative growth

Currently, there is little information to indicate whether plant cell division and development is the collective effect of individual cell programming (cell-based) or is determined by organ-wide growth (organismal). Modulation of cell division does not confirm cell autonomous programming of cell expansion; instead, final cell size seems to be determined by the balance between cells formed and subsequent tissue growth. Control of growth in regions of the plant therefore has great importance in determining cell, organ and plant development. Here, we question the view that formation of new cells and their programmed expansion is the driving force of growth. We believe there is evidence that division does not drive, but requires, cell growth and a similar requirement for growth is detected in the modified cycle termed endoreduplication.

Growth coordination and the shoot epidermis

Cell-cell communication is essential for growth and development of multicellular organisms. In higher plants, the shoot organs are derived from three clonally distinct cell layers present in the meristem. The role of the outermost L1 cell layer and its derived epidermis in coordinating growth of the inner-cell layers has long been debated. This question has been revisited recently using molecular tools to manipulate cell cycle progression or cell expansion, specifically in the epidermis. These studies conclude that cells in the epidermis both promote and restrict growth of the entire shoot by sending growth signals - either physical or chemical - to the inner layers.

From genes to shape: regulatory interactions in leaf development

In the past two years novel connections were described between auxin function and transcription factor patterning systems involved in both leaf initiation and elaboration of leaf axial patterning. A cascade of small RNA-based regulatory steps was suggested to facilitate delimitation of cell types comprising the upper versus lower parts of the leaf. Developmental regulation of cellular growth emerged as a crucial component in regulation of leaf form with TCP and CUC2 transcription factors playing a key role in this process. Finally, cis-regulatory evolution of developmental genes emerged as a process that likely contributed to diversification of leaf form, while studies in seedless land plants have begun to elucidate the ancestral and derived aspects of leaf development pathways.