51
|
Del Portillo HA, Ferrer M, Brugat T, Martin-Jaular L, Langhorne J, Lacerda MVG. The role of the spleen in malaria. Cell Microbiol 2012; 14:343-55. [PMID: 22188297 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2011.01741.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The spleen is a complex organ that is perfectly adapted to selectively filtering and destroying senescent red blood cells (RBCs), infectious microorganisms and Plasmodium-parasitized RBCs. Infection by malaria is the most common cause of spleen rupture and splenomegaly, albeit variably, a landmark of malaria infection. Here, the role of the spleen in malaria is reviewed with special emphasis in lessons learned from human infections and mouse models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hernando A Del Portillo
- Barcelona Centre for International Health Research (CRESIB, Hospital Clinic-Universitat de Barcelona), Barcelona, Spain.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
52
|
Burrell BE, Ding Y, Nakayama Y, Park KS, Xu J, Yin N, Bromberg JS. Tolerance and lymphoid organ structure and function. Front Immunol 2011; 2:64. [PMID: 22566853 PMCID: PMC3342028 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2011.00064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2011] [Accepted: 11/07/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
This issue of Frontiers in Immunologic Tolerance explores barriers to tolerance from a variety of views of cells, molecules, and processes of the immune system. Our laboratory has spent over a decade focused on the migration of the cells of the immune system, and dissecting the signals that determine how and where effector and suppressive regulatory T cells traffic from one site to another in order to reject or protect allografts. These studies have led us to a greater appreciation of the anatomic structure of the immune system, and the realization that the path taken by lymphocytes during the course of the immune response to implanted organs determines the final outcome. In particular, the structures, microanatomic domains, and the cells and molecules that lymphocytes encounter during their transit through blood, tissues, lymphatics, and secondary lymphoid organs are powerful determinants for whether tolerance is achieved. Thus, the understanding of complex cellular and molecular processes of tolerance will not come from “96-well plate immunology,” but from an integrated understanding of the temporal and spatial changes that occur during the response to the allograft. The study of the precise positioning and movement of cells in lymphoid organs has been difficult since it is hard to visualize cells within their three-dimensional setting; instead techniques have tended to be dominated by two-dimensional renderings, although advanced confocal and two-photon systems are changing this view. It is difficult to precisely modify key molecules and events in lymphoid organs, so that existing knockouts, transgenics, inhibitors, and activators have global and pleiotropic effects, rather than precise anatomically restricted influences. Lastly, there are no well-defined postal codes or tracking systems for leukocytes, so that while we can usually track cells from point A to point B, it is exponentially more difficult or even impossible to track them to point C and beyond. We believe this represents one of the fundamental barriers to understanding the immune system and devising therapeutic approaches that take into account anatomy and structure as major controlling principles of tolerance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bryna E Burrell
- Center for Vascular and Inflammatory Diseases, University of Maryland School of Medicine Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
53
|
Vossenkämper A, Spencer J. Transitional B cells: how well are the checkpoints for specificity understood? Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2011; 59:379-84. [PMID: 21789626 DOI: 10.1007/s00005-011-0135-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2011] [Accepted: 04/26/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
It is crucial for the immune system to minimise the number of circulating mature self-reactive B cells, in order to reduce the potential for the development of autoantibody-related autoimmune diseases. Studies of animal models have identified two major checkpoints that ensure that such cells do not contribute to the naïve B cell repertoire. The first is in the bone marrow as B cells develop and the second is in the spleen; B cells that are released from the bone marrow as transitional B cells go through more stringent selection in the spleen before they develop into mature naïve B cells. Transitional B cells and their maturation have mostly been studied in mice. However, recent studies characterised human transitional B cells and found considerable differences to current models. In this review, we will consider these differences alongside known differences in mouse and human splenic function and ask whether human transitional B cells might develop along a different pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Vossenkämper
- Centre for Immunology and Infectious Disease, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Blizard Institute, UK.
| | | |
Collapse
|
54
|
Steiniger B, Trabandt M, Barth PJ. The follicular dendritic cell network in secondary follicles of human palatine tonsils and spleens. Histochem Cell Biol 2011; 135:327-36. [DOI: 10.1007/s00418-011-0799-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/18/2011] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
|
55
|
Suárez-Vilela D, Izquierdo FM, Méndez JR, Escobar J, Urdiales G, Junco P. Diffuse lymphangiomatous hyperplasia of the spleen with hyaline bodies. A pseudotumoral proliferation arising from the lymphatic vessels of the periarteriolar lymphatic sheath. Virchows Arch 2011; 458:505-9. [PMID: 21337035 DOI: 10.1007/s00428-011-1055-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2011] [Accepted: 02/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
56
|
Guisado Vasco P, Villar Rodríguez JL, Ibañez Martínez J, González Cámpora R, Galera Davidson H. Immunohistochemical organization patterns of the follicular dendritic cells, myofibroblasts and macrophages in the human spleen--new considerations on the pathological diagnosis of splenectomy pieces. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PATHOLOGY 2009; 3:189-202. [PMID: 20126587 PMCID: PMC2809999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2009] [Accepted: 12/03/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
There is reliable information about how changes in spleen histology are influenced by the relationship among B and T lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells and myofibroblasts. Moreover, if it can be applied in the day-by-day pathology laboratory. This work intends to elucidate morpho-functional aspects of relationships of these cells in the different spleen compartments, how they are influenced by pathological conditions and how basic immunohistochemical techniques could optimize the histopathological diagnosis. We analyzed the usefulness of the monoclonal antibodies CD45RO, CD20, CD21, CD35, CD68, caldesmon, the smooth muscle alpha-actin type 1 (SMA-1) in 91 specimens. CD21(+) CD35(+) follicular dendritic cells were organized into three patterns in agreement with the immune condition of the lymphoid follicle. Smooth muscle alpha-actin type 1(+)and caldesmon(+)myofibroblasts draw two double rings: marginal-perifollicular and germinal-marginal. The latter is closely related to T-cells. CD68(+)red pulp macrophages had clear and linear configuration. The interruption of this CD68(+) linear pattern in splenic marginal zone lymphoma cases could be a criterion to differentiate it from reactive hyperplasia. CD45RO, CD20, CD21, CD68 and SMA-1 provide a basic and quality immunohistochemical battery for a better comprehension of the human spleen and could improve its histopathological diagnosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Guisado Vasco
- University Hospital Ramón y Cajal. Colmenar Viejo Road, km. 9,100. Internal Medicine Department. Zip code: 28034, Madrid, Spain.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
57
|
|
58
|
Mueller SN, Germain RN. Stromal cell contributions to the homeostasis and functionality of the immune system. Nat Rev Immunol 2009; 9:618-29. [PMID: 19644499 DOI: 10.1038/nri2588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 387] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A defining characteristic of the immune system is the constant movement of many of its constituent cells through the secondary lymphoid tissues, mainly the spleen and lymph nodes, where crucial interactions that underlie homeostatic regulation, peripheral tolerance and the effective development of adaptive immune responses take place. What has only recently been recognized is the role that non-haematopoietic stromal elements have in many aspects of immune cell migration, activation and survival. In this Review, we summarize our current understanding of lymphoid compartment stromal cells, examine their possible heterogeneity, discuss how these cells contribute to immune homeostasis and the efficient initiation of adaptive immune responses, and highlight how targeting of these elements by some pathogens can influence the host immune response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Scott N Mueller
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, 3010 Victoria, Australia.
| | | |
Collapse
|
59
|
Abstract
Human marginal zone (MZ) B cells are, in a sense, a new entity. Although they share many properties with their mouse counterpart, they also display striking differences, such as the capacity to recirculate and the presence of somatic mutations in their B cell receptor. These differences are the reason they are often not considered a separate, rodent-like B cell lineage, but rather are considered IgM memory B cells. We review here our present knowledge concerning this subset and the arguments in favor of the proposition that humans have evolved for their MZ B cell compartment a separate B cell population that develops and diversifies its Ig receptor during ontogeny outside T-dependent or T-independent immune responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Claude Weill
- INSERM U783, Développement du Système Immunitaire, Université Paris Descartes, Faculté de Médecine, Site Necker-Enfants Malades, 75730 Paris Cedex 15, France.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
60
|
Ontogeny of reticular framework of white pulp and marginal zone in human spleen: immunohistochemical studies of fetal spleens from the 17th to 40th week of gestation. Cell Tissue Res 2009; 336:287-97. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-009-0757-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2008] [Accepted: 01/10/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
61
|
|
62
|
Bajénoff M, Glaichenhaus N, Germain RN. Fibroblastic reticular cells guide T lymphocyte entry into and migration within the splenic T cell zone. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 181:3947-54. [PMID: 18768849 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.181.6.3947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Although a great deal is known about T cell entry into lymph nodes, much less is understood about how T lymphocytes access the splenic white pulp (WP). We show in this study that, as recently described for lymph nodes, fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs) form a network in the T cell zone (periarteriolar lymphoid sheath, PALS) of the WP on which T lymphocytes migrate. This network connects the PALS to the marginal zone (MZ), which is the initial site of lymphocyte entry from the blood. T cells do not enter the WP at random locations but instead traffic to that site using the FRC-rich MZ bridging channels (MZBCs). These data reveal that FRCs form a substrate for T cells in the spleen, guiding these lymphocytes from their site of entry in the MZ into the PALS, within which they continue to move on the same network.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marc Bajénoff
- Lymphocyte Biology Section, Laboratory of Immunology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
63
|
Balogh P, Fisi V, Szakal AK. Fibroblastic reticular cells of the peripheral lymphoid organs: Unique features of a ubiquitous cell type. Mol Immunol 2008; 46:1-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2008.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2008] [Accepted: 07/06/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
64
|
Capolunghi F, Cascioli S, Giorda E, Rosado MM, Plebani A, Auriti C, Seganti G, Zuntini R, Ferrari S, Cagliuso M, Quinti I, Carsetti R. CpG drives human transitional B cells to terminal differentiation and production of natural antibodies. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:800-8. [PMID: 18178818 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.2.800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The receptor TLR9, recognizing unmethylated bacterial DNA (CpG), is expressed by B cells and plays a role in the maintenance of serological memory. Little is known about the response of B cells stimulated with CpG alone, without additional cytokines. In this study, we show for the first time the phenotypic modification, changes in gene expression, and functional events downstream to TLR9 stimulation in human B cell subsets. In addition, we demonstrate that upon CpG stimulation, IgM memory B cells differentiate into plasma cells producing IgM Abs directed against the capsular polysaccharides of Streptococcus pneumoniae. This novel finding proves that IgM memory is the B cell compartment responsible for the defense against encapsulated bacteria. We also show that cord blood transitional B cells, corresponding to new bone marrow emigrants, respond to CpG. Upon TLR9 engagement, they de novo express AID and Blimp-1, genes necessary for hypersomatic mutation, class-switch recombination, and plasma cell differentiation and produce Abs with anti-pneumococcal specificity. Transitional B cells, isolated from cord blood, have not been exposed to pneumococcus in vivo. In addition, it is known that Ag binding through the BCR causes apoptotic cell death at this stage of development. Therefore, the ability of transitional B cells to sense bacterial DNA through TLR9 represents a tool to rapidly build up the repertoire of natural Abs necessary for our first-line defense at birth.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Federica Capolunghi
- Laboratory of B-cell Development Research Center, Department of Medical and Surgical Neonatology, Children Hospital Bambino Gesù, and Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Rome La Sapienza, Italy.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
65
|
Sanz I, Wei C, Lee FEH, Anolik J. Phenotypic and functional heterogeneity of human memory B cells. Semin Immunol 2008; 20:67-82. [PMID: 18258454 PMCID: PMC2440717 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2007.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 261] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2007] [Accepted: 12/06/2007] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Memory B cells are more heterogeneous than previously thought. Given that B cells play powerful antibody-independent effector functions, it seems reasonable to assume division of labor between distinct memory B cells subpopulations in both protective and pathogenic immune responses. Here we review the information emerging regarding the heterogeneity of human memory B cells. A better understanding of this topic should greatly improve our ability to target specific B cell subsets either in vaccine responses or in autoimmune diseases and organ rejection among other pathological conditions where B cells play central pathogenic roles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Iñaki Sanz
- Division of Allergy, Immunology and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
66
|
The extracellular matrix of the spleen as a potential organizer of immune cell compartments. Semin Immunol 2008; 20:4-13. [PMID: 18243017 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2007.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2007] [Accepted: 12/06/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Until recently little information was available on the molecular details of the extracellular matrix (ECM) of secondary lymphoid tissues. There is now growing evidence that these ECMs are unique structures, combining characteristics of basement membranes and interstitial or fibrillar matrices, resulting in scaffolds that are strong and highly flexible and, in certain secondary lymphoid compartments, also forming conduit networks for rapid fluid transport. This review will address the structural characteristics of the ECM of the murine spleen and its potential role as an organizer of immune cell compartments, with reference to the lymph node where relevant.
Collapse
|
67
|
Manzo A, Bugatti S, Caporali R, Prevo R, Jackson DG, Uguccioni M, Buckley CD, Montecucco C, Pitzalis C. CCL21 expression pattern of human secondary lymphoid organ stroma is conserved in inflammatory lesions with lymphoid neogenesis. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2008; 171:1549-62. [PMID: 17982129 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2007.061275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
CCL21 is a homeostatic lymphoid chemokine instrumental in the recruitment and organization of T cells and dendritic cells into lymphoid T areas. In human secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs), CCL21 is produced by cells distributed throughout the T zone, whereas high endothelial venules (HEVs) lack CCL21 mRNA. A critical question remains whether the development of ectopic lymphoid tissue (ELT) in chronic inflammation recapitulates the features of SLOs. Thus, we systematically investigated in situ the cellular sources of CCL21 in SLOs and ELTs in several human diseases characterized by lymphoid neogenesis. By in situ hybridization and the use of combinatorial cell markers, we show that CCL21-producing vessels in inflamed tissues systematically display typical markers of lymphatic vessels, whereas, as in SLOs, ectopic HEVs do not synthesize detectable levels of CCL21. We also provide first-time evidence that a common pattern of CCL21 expression by CD45-negative myofibroblast-like cells localized in extra-HEV position and organized in a fibroblastic reticular network similarly characterizes human SLOs and organized ELTs. Altogether, our results demonstrate that in humans the pattern of CCL21 production in SLOs is maintained during inflammation and that the phenotypic and functional properties of stromal cells, found in SLO T-cell areas, are reproduced at ectopic sites.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Manzo
- Rheumatology Unit, Guy's, King's, and St. Thomas' School of Medicine, London, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
68
|
Kogan AN, von Andrian UH. Lymphocyte Trafficking. Microcirculation 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-374530-9.00012-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
|
69
|
Pack M, Trumpfheller C, Thomas D, Park CG, Granelli-Piperno A, Münz C, Steinman RM. DEC-205/CD205+ dendritic cells are abundant in the white pulp of the human spleen, including the border region between the red and white pulp. Immunology 2007; 123:438-46. [PMID: 17944899 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2007.02710.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The distribution of dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages in the human spleen has received less attention than that of lymphocytes. Here we have addressed this problem with the human DEC-205/CD205 marker ('DEC'), which is an endocytic receptor on DCs that mediates efficient presentation of antigens. DEC was abundant on dendritic profiles in the white pulp but absent from the red pulp, the latter defined with antibodies to two antigens, mannose receptor/CD206 on sinusoidal lining cells, and macrosialin/CD68 on macrophages. Double staining with anti-DEC and anti-CD3 showed the expected concentration of DEC+ cells in the relatively small T-cell areas of the human spleen. DEC+ cells were also found in other regions of the white pulp. In all regions, the DEC+ cells were positive for major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II and the CD11c integrin but largely immature, with low expression of B7-2/CD86 costimulator and DC-lysosome-associated membrane protein (LAMP)/CD208. When we concentrated on the perifollicular region between the red pulp and the marginal zone, we found macrophages that stained with antibodies to sialoadhesin/CD169 and DC-specific ICAM-3 grabbing non-integrin (SIGN)/CD209, and just inside these cells were DEC+ profiles. The DEC+ DCs were intertwined with cells that stained for the vascular addressin mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule (MAdCAM). Therefore, anti-DEC-205/CD205 antibodies are useful for identifying DCs in human splenic white pulp and its border region with the red pulp.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maggi Pack
- The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10021, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
70
|
Steiniger B, Stachniss V, Schwarzbach H, Barth PJ. Phenotypic differences between red pulp capillary and sinusoidal endothelia help localizing the open splenic circulation in humans. Histochem Cell Biol 2007; 128:391-8. [PMID: 17849140 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-007-0320-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/19/2007] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The distribution of capillaries, sinuses and larger vessels was investigated by immunohistology in paraffin sections of 12 adult human spleens using a panel of antibodies. Double staining for CD34 and CD141 (thrombomodulin) revealed that capillary endothelia in the cords of the splenic red pulp and at the surface of follicles were CD34(+)CD141(-), while red pulp sinus endothelia had the phenotype CD34(-)CD141(+). Only in the direct vicinity of splenic follicles did sinus endothelial cells exhibit both antigens. Thus, splenic sinuses do not replace conventional capillaries, but exist in addition to such vessels. The endothelium in arterioles, venules and larger arteries and veins was uniformly CD34(+)CD141(+). Anti-CD34 and anti-CD141 both additionally reacted with different types of splenic stromal cells. Differential staining of capillaries and sinuses may permit a three-dimensional reconstruction of serial sections to unequivocally delineate the "open" and "closed" splenic circulation in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Birte Steiniger
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Marburg, Robert-Koch-Str. 8, 35032, Marburg, Germany.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
71
|
Steiniger B, Ulfig N, Risse M, Barth PJ. Fetal and early post-natal development of the human spleen: from primordial arterial B cell lobules to a non-segmented organ. Histochem Cell Biol 2007; 128:205-15. [PMID: 17624541 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-007-0296-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/11/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Immunohistological analysis of 31 human spleens from the 11th week of gestation to the early postnatal period suggested that fetal organ development may be preliminarily divided into four stages. At stage 0 the organ anlage contained erythrocyte precursors, few macrophages and almost no lymphocytes. Fetal spleens of stage I exhibited arterial vascular lobules and lymphocytes just began colonizing the organ. At stage II, B and T lymphocytes formed periarteriolar clusters. B cell clusters predominated, because B cells aggregated around the more peripheral branches of splenic arterioles, while T cells occupied the more centrally located parts of the vessels. The vascular lobules of stage I and II consisted of central arterioles surrounded by B cells, capillaries and peripheral venules. The lobular architecture slowly dissolved at late stage II when sinuses grew out from the peripheral venules into the centre of the lobule. Interestingly, the B cell accumulations around peripheral arterioles did not represent the precursors of follicles, but apparently persisted as periarteriolar B cell clusters in the adult splenic red pulp, while follicles containing FDCs developed at late stage II from B cells in direct contact to T cell clusters around larger arterial vessels. At stage III before birth the lobular architecture was no longer recognized. The chemokine CXCL13 was already present in vascular smooth muscle and adjacent stromal cells at stage I before B cells immigrated. CCL21, on the contrary, was only demonstrated in fibroblast-like cells supporting T cell clusters from stage II onwards.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Birte Steiniger
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Marburg, Robert-Koch-Str. 8, 35037, Marburg, Germany.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
72
|
Ettinger R, Sims GP, Robbins R, Withers D, Fischer RT, Grammer AC, Kuchen S, Lipsky PE. IL-21 and BAFF/BLyS synergize in stimulating plasma cell differentiation from a unique population of human splenic memory B cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2007; 178:2872-82. [PMID: 17312131 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.178.5.2872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Both constitutive Ig secretion by long-lived plasma cells (PC) and the recurrent differentiation of memory (mem) B cells into PC contribute to the maintenance of serologic mem. However, the relative contribution of each is unknown. In this study, we describe a novel population of human postswitched mem B cells that rapidly differentiate into PC and thus contribute to serologic mem. These IgG(+) B cells reside in the region of human spleen analogous to the murine marginal zone and have not previously been examined. These cells are highly responsive to IL-21 in the context of CD40 stimulation. Uniquely, IgG(+) marginal zone analog B cells are exquisitely sensitive to the combination of IL-21 and B cell-activating factor belonging to the TNF family (BAFF/BLyS) that synergize in the absence of further costimulation to induce up-regulation of B lymphocyte-induced maturation protein-1 and drive PC differentiation. Other cytokine combinations are not active in this regard. This is the first demonstration that this unique population of mem B cells can respond specifically and exclusively to IL-21 and BAFF/BLyS by differentiating into IgG-secreting PC, and thus contributing to serologic mem in an Ag-independent manner.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Ettinger
- Autoimmunity Branch, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
73
|
Balogh P, Balázs M, Czömpöly T, Weih DS, Arnold HH, Weih F. Distinct roles of lymphotoxin-β signaling and the homeodomain transcription factor Nkx2.3 in the ontogeny of endothelial compartments in spleen. Cell Tissue Res 2007; 328:473-86. [PMID: 17318587 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-007-0378-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2006] [Accepted: 01/10/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The formation of peripheral lymphoid tissues is indispensable for the efficient recognition and elimination of external antigens by lymphoid and accessory cells of the adaptive immune system. The spleen is structurally arranged around various vascular beds with distinct endothelial phenotypes. Using immunohistochemistry, we investigated the postnatal developmental characteristics of the marginal sinus and its relationship with various red-pulp sinus subsets. We also determined the importance of the lymphotoxin beta receptor (LT beta R) and the role of the Nkx2.3 transcription factor for the formation of the splenic vasculature. Both the administration of soluble LT beta R-Ig fusion protein to neonates and the deletion of LT beta R or downstream signaling components (RelB and p52) of the NF-kappaB family inhibited the phenotypic maturation of marginal sinus but had no effect on the vascular compartmentalization of the red pulp. The integrity of the marginal sinus and the proper vascular segregation of the red pulp appeared to be controlled by Nkx2.3, as Nkx2.3-deficient mice exhibited an abnormal distribution of IBL-7/1(hi)/IBL-9/2(-) sinuses and a lack of IBL-7/1(lo)/IBL-9/2(+) vessels. Our data suggest that phenotypic heterogeneity among different vascular elements within distinct anatomical regions of the spleen differentially depends on developmental factors such as lymphotoxin signaling or Nkx2.3, whereas the marginal sinus is controlled by both pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Péter Balogh
- Department of Immunology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 12., H-7624, Pécs, Hungary.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
74
|
Steiniger B, Timphus EM, Barth PJ. The splenic marginal zone in humans and rodents: an enigmatic compartment and its inhabitants. Histochem Cell Biol 2006; 126:641-8. [PMID: 16816939 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-006-0210-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/06/2006] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The role of the spleen in B memory cell development and maintenance is attracting increased attention. Studies in mice and rats have indicated that memory functions are associated with large B cells residing in the marginal zone (MZ) of the spleen. Although the cellular composition of the MZ is relatively well known in these species, controversies exist about the function of MZ B cells, their dependence on the presence of the spleen and the stage at which their development branches from that of recirculating follicular B cells. Additional confusion has arisen with respect to MZ B cells in humans, because the microscopic anatomy of the human splenic MZ differs decisively from that of rodents. Several recent publications indicate that the functional and migratory properties of human MZ B cells may be species-specific. The hypothesis derived from these publications and from our immunohistological observations implies that at least a major number of human splenic CD27(+) MZ B cells are migratory. Phenotypic data suggest a recirculation pathway between the spleen and mucosal tissues in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Birte Steiniger
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Marburg, Robert-Koch-Str. 8, 35037 Marburg, Germany.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
75
|
Vugmeyster Y, Seshasayee D, Chang W, Storn A, Howell K, Sa S, Nelson T, Martin F, Grewal I, Gilkerson E, Wu B, Thompson J, Ehrenfels BN, Ren S, Song A, Gelzleichter TR, Danilenko DM. A soluble BAFF antagonist, BR3-Fc, decreases peripheral blood B cells and lymphoid tissue marginal zone and follicular B cells in cynomolgus monkeys. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2006; 168:476-89. [PMID: 16436662 PMCID: PMC1606502 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2006.050600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BAFF (also known as BLyS), a member of the tumor necrosis factor superfamily, plays a critical role in the maturation and development of B cells. BAFF has three receptors on B cells, the most crucial of which is BR3. In this study, we demonstrate the biological outcome of BAFF blockade in cynomolgus monkeys using a soluble fusion protein consisting of human BR3 and human IgG1 Fc. In vitro, BR3-Fc blocked BAFF-mediated survival and proliferation of cynomolgus monkey B cells. Weekly treatment of cynomolgus monkeys with BR3-Fc for 13 to 18 weeks resulted in significant B-cell reduction in the peripheral blood and in lymphoid organs. CD21(high) B cells in lymphoid tissues, a subset analogous to human marginal zone B cells, expressed nearly twofold higher BR3 levels than did CD21(med) B cells. Lymphoid tissue flow cytometric analysis showed that BR3-Fc reduced this CD21(high) B-cell subset to a greater extent than it reduced CD21(med) B cells. Dual-label immunohistochemistry and morphometric image analysis supported these results by demonstrating that BR3-Fc reduced a significant proportion of the B cells within the splenic inner and outer marginal zones. These findings should prove very useful in guiding the desired therapeutic use of BR3-Fc for autoimmune diseases in the clinic.
Collapse
|
76
|
Gunia S, Albrecht K, May M, Stosiek P. The white pulp in the setting of the septic spleen caused by different bacteria: a comparative morphometric study. APMIS 2006; 113:675-82. [PMID: 16309426 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0463.2005.apm_262.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In the past little attention has been paid to histomorphologic changes accompanying the phenomenon of the septic spleen, thus indirectly reinforcing the old axiom that the spleen is an organ of mystery. It is especially noteworthy that the relationship between different causative bacteria and histopathologic abnormalities of the white pulp has not been investigated. In this study morphometric analysis was performed on the white pulp of 30 spleens obtained at autopsy from individuals with premortal sepsis. A strictly defined age- and sex-matched control group was analyzed for statistical comparison. Our findings demonstrate a significant depletion of B- and T-areas in the septic spleen, accompanied by a significant tendency towards reactive germinal center hyperplasia regardless of the type of bacteria responsible. However, depletion of splenic B-areas was shown to be significantly pronounced in the setting of premortal enterococcemia in comparison with a panel of gram-negative flagellated bacteria. It is felt that certain bacterial virulence factors (e.g. flagellation and/or structural components of the cell wall) might be pathogenetically involved in the observed changes, reflecting a partially different activation of splenic lymphocytes in the setting of the septic spleen.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sven Gunia
- Department of Pathology, Carl-Theim Hospital Cottbus, Germany.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
77
|
Steiniger B, Timphus EM, Jacob R, Barth PJ. CD27+ B cells in human lymphatic organs: re-evaluating the splenic marginal zone. Immunology 2006; 116:429-42. [PMID: 16313357 PMCID: PMC1802440 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2005.02242.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The marginal zone of human spleens is regarded as an organ-specific region harbouring sessile memory B cells. This opinion has arisen by extrapolating from results obtained in mice and rats. Detection of CD27(+) B cells in situ now revealed similarities among the most superficial region of B-cell follicles in human spleens, reactive lymph nodes, inflamed appendices, tonsils and terminal ilea. The follicular surface in these organs consists of small naïve immunoglobulin D (IgD)(+) CD27(-) B cells predominating in an inner area and larger IgD(+/-) CD27(+) B cells prevailing in a more superficial position. CD27(+) B cells may, however, also occupy the entire follicular periphery around the germinal centre. Together with additional peculiarities this distribution indicates a fundamental microanatomical difference among the human and rodent splenic white pulp. We hypothesize that the follicular periphery represents a recirculation compartment both for naïve and memory/natural reactive B cells in all human secondary lymphatic organs. This assumption implies a difference in recirculation behaviour among human and rodent B memory cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Birte Steiniger
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Marburg, Germany.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
78
|
Kraal G, Mebius R. New insights into the cell biology of the marginal zone of the spleen. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CYTOLOGY 2006; 250:175-215. [PMID: 16861066 PMCID: PMC7112368 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7696(06)50005-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In the marginal zone of the spleen the bloodstream passes through an open system of reticular cells and fibers in which various myeloid and lymphoid cells are located. Macrophages in this region are well equipped to recognize pathogens and filter the blood by virtue of unique combinations of pattern recognition receptors. They interact with a specific set of B cells that can be found only in the marginal zone and that are able to react rapidly to bacterial antigens in particular. This combination of strategically located cells is an important factor in our defense against blood-borne pathogens. New data on the development of the marginal zone itself and the marginal zone B cells are reviewed and discussed in light of the function of the spleen in host defense.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Georg Kraal
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | |
Collapse
|
79
|
Abstract
The spleen combines the innate and adaptive immune system in a uniquely organized way. The structure of the spleen enables it to remove older erythrocytes from the circulation and leads to the efficient removal of blood-borne microorganisms and cellular debris. This function, in combination with a highly organized lymphoid compartment, makes the spleen the most important organ for antibacterial and antifungal immune reactivity. A better understanding of the function of this complex organ has been gained from recent studies, as outlined in this Review article.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Reina E Mebius
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Medical Center, v.d. Boechorststraat 7, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | | |
Collapse
|
80
|
Briard D, Azzarone B, Brouty-Boyé D. Importance of stromal determinants in the generation of dendritic and natural killer cells in the human spleen. Clin Exp Immunol 2005; 140:265-73. [PMID: 15807850 PMCID: PMC1809374 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2005.02792.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/09/2005] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Summary The interaction between stroma and blood cells in the human spleen has received little attention, despite their well-defined roles during blood cell development in bone marrow. We have reported previously that human spleen-derived fibroblasts display a differentiated myofibroblast phenotype and constitutively express a biologically active form of membrane interleukin (IL)-15 that can drive co-cultured CD34(+) blood cells to differentiate into activated natural killer (NK) cells. Here, we show that, in addition to NK cells, CD34/fibroblast co-cultures also yield myeloid CD1a(+)CD38(+)CD68(+)CD86(+) HLA-DR(+)CD14(-)CD80(-) dendritic cells (DCs) after 3-4 weeks in culture. We found that DC development depended on endogenously secreted stromal macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and CD40/CD40L interaction rather than on fibroblast- and CD34-derived membrane IL-15. CD1a(+) cells were necessary for co-produced NK cells to acquire lytic functions by a mechanism involving cell-to-cell contact and DC-derived IL-12. This study highlights the importance of spleen myofibroblasts in the in vitro generation of two distinct cell types (DC and NK cells) from the innate immune system and suggests that the human spleen is involved in the generation of NK cells from circulating progenitors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Briard
- INSERM U602, IFR André Lwoff, Université Paris XI, Villejuif, France
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
81
|
Urban BC, Hien TT, Day NP, Phu NH, Roberts R, Pongponratn E, Jones M, Mai NTH, Bethell D, Turner GDH, Ferguson D, White NJ, Roberts DJ. Fatal Plasmodium falciparum malaria causes specific patterns of splenic architectural disorganization. Infect Immun 2005; 73:1986-94. [PMID: 15784539 PMCID: PMC1087405 DOI: 10.1128/iai.73.4.1986-1994.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The spleen is critical for host defense against pathogens, including Plasmodium falciparum. It has a dual role, not only removing aged or antigenically altered erythrocytes from the blood but also as the major lymphoid organ for blood-borne or systemic infections. The human malaria parasite P. falciparum replicates within erythrocytes during asexual blood stages and causes repeated infections that can be associated with severe disease. In spite of the crucial role of the spleen in the innate and acquired immune response to malaria, there is little information on the pathology of the spleen in human malaria. We performed a histological and quantitative immunohistochemical study of spleen sections from Vietnamese adults dying from severe falciparum malaria and compared the findings with the findings for spleen sections from control patients and patients dying from systemic bacterial sepsis. Here we report that the white pulp in the spleens of patients dying from malaria showed a marked architectural disorganization. We observed a marked dissolution of the marginal zones with relative loss of B cells. Furthermore, we found strong HLA-DR expression on sinusoidal lining cells but downregulation on cordal macrophages. P. falciparum infection results in alterations in splenic leukocytes, many of which are not seen in sepsis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Britta C Urban
- Centre for Clinical Vaccinology and Tropical Medicine, Churchill Hospital, University of Oxford, Old Road, Oxford, OX3 7LJ, United Kingdom.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
82
|
Abstract
Our views regarding the origins and functions of splenic marginal zone B cells have changed considerably over the past few years. Perspectives regarding the development and function of these cells vary considerably between investigators studying human and rodent immunology. Marginal zone B cells are now recognized to constitute a distinct naive B lymphoid lineage. Considerable progress has been made regarding the mechanisms involved in marginal zone B cell development in the mouse. Many of the molecular events that participate in the retention of this lineage of B cells in the marginal zone have been identified. Here, we discuss the functions of these cells in both innate and adaptive immunity. We also attempt to reconcile differing viewpoints regarding the generation and function of marginal zone B cells in rodents and primates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shiv Pillai
- Center for Cancer Research, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02129, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
83
|
Kaye PM, Svensson M, Ato M, Maroof A, Polley R, Stager S, Zubairi S, Engwerda CR. The immunopathology of experimental visceral leishmaniasis. Immunol Rev 2005; 201:239-53. [PMID: 15361245 DOI: 10.1111/j.0105-2896.2004.00188.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Experimental murine infection with the parasites that cause human visceral leishmaniasis (VL) results in the establishment of infection in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. In most strains of mice, parasites are eventually cleared from the liver, and hepatic resistance to infection results from a coordinated host response involving a broad range of effector and regulatory pathways targeted within defined tissue structures called granulomas. In contrast, parasites persist in the spleen and bone marrow by mechanisms that are less well understood. Parasite persistence is accompanied by the failure of granuloma formation and by a variety of pathologic changes, including splenomegaly, disruption of lymphoid tissue microarchitecture, and enhanced hematopoietic activity. Here, we review the salient features of these distinct tissue responses and highlight the varied roles that cytokines of the tumor necrosis factor family play in immunity to this infection. In addition, we also discuss recent studies aimed at understanding how splenomegaly affects the survival and function of memory cells specific for heterologous antigens, an issue of considerable importance for our understanding of the disease-associated increase in secondary infections characteristic of human VL.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paul M Kaye
- Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
84
|
Leung E, Lehnert KB, Kanwar JR, Yang Y, Mon Y, McNeil HP, Krissansen GW. Bioassay detects soluble MAdCAM-1 in body fluids. Immunol Cell Biol 2005; 82:400-9. [PMID: 15283850 DOI: 10.1111/j.0818-9641.2004.01247.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule (MAdCAM-1) is a key player in mediating the infiltration of leucocytes into chronically inflamed tissues. Five anti-MAdCAM-1 monoclonal antibodies (mAb), designated 17F5, 201F7, 314G8, 377D10 and 355G8, were generated by fusion of P3 x 63Ag8.653 myeloma cells with spleen cells from BALB/c mice immunized with recombinant human MAdCAM-1-Fc. The latter four mAb recognize the ligand-binding first Ig domain, and block T -cell adhesion to MAdCAM-1. The non-blocking mAb 17F5 recognizes the mucin domain. Extensive analysis of a large panel of paraffin-embedded human tissues revealed that the 314G8 mAb detected MAdCAM-1 on venules in the spleen and small intestine. MAdCAM-1 was strongly expressed in the synovium of osteoarthritis patients, predominantly on the endothelial lining of blood vessels, but also within the vessel lumen. An ELISA, based on mAb 377D10 and 355G8, was developed to determine whether soluble MAdCAM-1 was present in body fluids, and to measure the levels present. The assay detected soluble MAdCAM-1 in the serum and urine of healthy donors, at levels similar to those of soluble forms of the related CAM, ICAM-1 and VCAM-1. The anti-MAdCAM-1 antibodies and assay developed here may be useful therapeutically in the treatment of inflammation in humans. Similarly, they may be useful diagnostically to monitor the presence and levels of MAdCAM-1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Euphemia Leung
- Department of Molecular Medicine & Pathology, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
85
|
Brady J, Neal J, Sadakar N, Gasque P. Human endosialin (tumor endothelial marker 1) is abundantly expressed in highly malignant and invasive brain tumors. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2005; 63:1274-83. [PMID: 15624764 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/63.12.1274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Endosialin (tumor endothelial marker 1) is expressed preferentially by tumor endothelial cells but not by normal endothelium. Its protein domain architecture is homologous to that of CD93 and thrombomodulin (CD141), suggesting a similar function in mediating cell-cell interactions. The aim of this study was to investigate the expression pattern of endosialin in human brain tumors in a bid to decipher its contribution to tumor angiogenesis. We generated an antibody specifically recognizing human endosialin and used it to study endosialin expression in 30 human brain tumor specimens by immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry. Twenty of 30 tumors expressed endosialin in a heterogeneous manner. The largest proportion of endosialin-expressing tumors was found in highly invasive glioblastoma multiforme, anaplastic astrocytomas, and metastatic carcinomas. Endosialin was localized to the endothelium of small and large vessels strongly stained for CD31 and was also expressed by Thy-1-positive fibroblast-like cells close to the meninges and alpha-smooth muscle actin-positive cells in some vessels. Endosialin colocalized with thrombomodulin, suggesting the proteins may have complementary functions in tumor progression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Brady
- Brain Inflammation and Immunity Group, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Immunology, University of Wales College of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
86
|
Brouty-Boyé D. Developmental biology of fibroblasts and neoplastic disease. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR AND SUBCELLULAR BIOLOGY 2005; 40:55-77. [PMID: 17153480 DOI: 10.1007/3-540-27671-8_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- D Brouty-Boyé
- INSERM U602, Institut André Lwoff, Hôpital Paul Brousse, 12 avenue Paul Vaillant-Couturier, 94807 Villejuif cedex, France
| |
Collapse
|
87
|
Weller S, Braun MC, Tan BK, Rosenwald A, Cordier C, Conley ME, Plebani A, Kumararatne DS, Bonnet D, Tournilhac O, Tchernia G, Steiniger B, Staudt LM, Casanova JL, Reynaud CA, Weill JC. Human blood IgM "memory" B cells are circulating splenic marginal zone B cells harboring a prediversified immunoglobulin repertoire. Blood 2004; 104:3647-54. [PMID: 15191950 PMCID: PMC2590648 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2004-01-0346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 603] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The human peripheral B-cell compartment displays a large population of immunoglobulin M-positive, immunoglobulin D-positive CD27(+) (IgM(+)IgD(+)CD27(+)) "memory" B cells carrying a mutated immunoglobulin receptor. By means of phenotypic analysis, complementarity-determining region 3 (CDR3) spectratyping during a T-independent response, and gene-expression profiling of the different blood and splenic B-cell subsets, we show here that blood IgM(+)IgD(+)CD27(+) cells correspond to circulating splenic marginal zone B cells. Furthermore, analysis of this peripheral subset in healthy children younger than 2 years shows that these B cells develop and mutate their immunoglobulin receptor during ontogeny, prior to their differentiation into T-independent antigen-responsive cells. It is therefore proposed that these IgM(+)IgD(+)CD27(+) B cells provide the splenic marginal zone with a diversified and protective preimmune repertoire in charge of the responses against encapsulated bacteria.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Weller
- Développement du système immunitaire
INSERM : U373Université Paris Descartes - Paris VHôpital Necker
156 Rue de Vaugirard, 75730 Paris,FR
| | - Moritz C. Braun
- Développement du système immunitaire
INSERM : U373Université Paris Descartes - Paris VHôpital Necker
156 Rue de Vaugirard, 75730 Paris,FR
| | - Bruce K. Tan
- Metabolism Branch
Center for Cancer ResearchNational Cancer InstituteNational Institutes of HealthBethesda, MD,US
| | - Andreas Rosenwald
- Metabolism Branch
Center for Cancer ResearchNational Cancer InstituteNational Institutes of HealthBethesda, MD,US
| | - Corinne Cordier
- IRNEM, IFR Necker-Enfants Malades
INSERM : IFR94CNRS : IFR94AP-HPUniversité Paris Descartes - Paris VGH Necker - Enfants Malades
149, Rue de Sevres
75743 PARIS CEDEX 15,FR
| | - Mary Ellen Conley
- Department of Immunology
St Jude Children's Research HospitalUniversity of Tennessee College of MedicineMemphis, TN,US
| | - Alessandro Plebani
- Department of Pediatrics and Institute for Molecular Medicine Angello Nocivelli
University of BresciaUniversity of Brescia, 25121 Brescia,IT
| | | | - Damien Bonnet
- Service de cardiologie pédiatrique
AP-HPHôpital Necker - Enfants MaladesUniversité Paris Descartes - Paris V149 rue de Sèvres
75015 PARIS,FR
| | | | - Gil Tchernia
- Service d'hématologie, immunologie biologiques et cytogénétique
AP-HPHôpital BicêtreUniversité Paris Sud - Paris XIFR
| | - Birte Steiniger
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology
University of MarburgDE
| | - Louis M. Staudt
- Metabolism Branch
Center for Cancer ResearchNational Cancer InstituteNational Institutes of HealthBethesda, MD,US
| | - Jean-Laurent Casanova
- Génétique Humaine des Maladies Infectieuses
INSERM : U550Université Paris Descartes - Paris VFac de Medecine Necker-Enfants Malades PARIS V
156, Rue de Vaugirard
75730 PARIS CEDEX 15,FR
| | - Claude-Agnès Reynaud
- Développement du système immunitaire
INSERM : U373Université Paris Descartes - Paris VHôpital Necker
156 Rue de Vaugirard, 75730 Paris,FR
- ✉ Correspondence should be adressed to: Claude-Agnès Reynaud or Jean-Claude Weill
| | - Jean-Claude Weill
- Développement du système immunitaire
INSERM : U373Université Paris Descartes - Paris VHôpital Necker
156 Rue de Vaugirard, 75730 Paris,FR
- ✉ Correspondence should be adressed to: Claude-Agnès Reynaud or Jean-Claude Weill
| |
Collapse
|
88
|
Crivellato E, Vacca A, Ribatti D. Setting the stage: an anatomist's view of the immune system. Trends Immunol 2004; 25:210-7. [PMID: 15039048 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2004.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Crivellato
- Department of Medical and Morphological Researches, Anatomy Section, University of Udine Medical School, Piazalle Kolbe n. 3, Udine, Italy.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
89
|
Kruschinski C, Zidan M, Debertin AS, von Hörsten S, Pabst R. Age-dependent development of the splenic marginal zone in human infants is associated with different causes of death. Hum Pathol 2004; 35:113-21. [PMID: 14745733 DOI: 10.1016/s0046-8177(03)00422-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Infants are more susceptible to infections caused by T cell- independent type 2 (TI-2) polysaccharide antigens of certain encapsulated bacteria. Immune responses against this type of antigen are related to the splenic marginal zone (MZ). However, only few data exist on the age-dependent developmental stages of the human spleen in early childhood and on their association with different diseases. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate spleens of a large number of children at very young ages (12 days to 32 months), derived from autopsy cases. Immunohistochemical labeling was performed on paraffin sections of 34 spleens using a panel of monoclonal antibodies. The shape and size of the white pulp compartments were examined and correlated to the cause of death of the children. Results show that the development of the different compartments was statistically age-dependent, but no clear-cut time point for the maturity of each compartment was seen. Furthermore, the MZ was significantly more often missing when sudden infant death (SID) and/or infection were the cause of death, compared with other violent or traumatic reasons that served as controls. This association supports the concept that an immature state of the spleen and especially of the MZ might contribute to the increased susceptibility to bacterial infections in young infants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Kruschinski
- Department of Functional and Applied Anatomy, Medical School of Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
90
|
Gommerman JL, Browning JL. Lymphotoxin/light, lymphoid microenvironments and autoimmune disease. Nat Rev Immunol 2003; 3:642-55. [PMID: 12974479 DOI: 10.1038/nri1151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Much of the efficiency of the immune system is attributed to the high degree of spatial and temporal organization in the secondary lymphoid organs. Signalling through the lymphotoxin (LT) pathway is a crucial element in the maintenance of this organized microenvironment. The effect of altering lymphoid microenvironments on immune responses remains relatively unexplored. Inhibitors of the LT and LIGHT pathways have been shown to reduce disease in a wide range of autoimmune models. This approach has provided a tool to probe the effect of manipulation of the microenvironment on both normal and pathological immune responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Gommerman
- Biogen, Department of Exploratory Sciences, 12 Cambridge Center, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
91
|
Leung E, Kanwar RK, Kanwar JR, Krissansen GW. Mucosal vascular addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 is expressed outside the endothelial lineage on fibroblasts and melanoma cells. Immunol Cell Biol 2003; 81:320-7. [PMID: 12848854 DOI: 10.1046/j.1440-1711.2003.t01-1-01175.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Mucosal vascular addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 (MAdCAM-1) is predominantly expressed on high endothelial venules in inflamed tissues where it assists with leucocyte extravasation. Here we report that MAdCAM-1 has the potential to be more widely expressed outside the endothelial cell lineage than previously appreciated. Thus, MAdCAM-1 RNA transcripts and cell-surface protein were expressed by NIH 3T3 fibroblasts following activation with tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), and by freshly isolated and cultured primary mouse splenic and tail fibroblasts in the absence of TNF-alpha stimulation. They were constitutively expressed by B16F10 melanoma cells, and expression was enhanced by cell activation with TNF-alpha. Mucosal vascular addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 was expressed on the apical surface of isolated cells, but became predominantly localized to cell junctions in confluent cell monolayers, suggesting it may play a role in the homotypic aggregation of cells. Tumour necrosis factor-alpha enhanced the expression of a firefly luciferase reporter directed by the MAdCAM-1 promoter in NIH 3T3 and B16F10 cells. A DNA fragment extending from nt -1727 to -673 was sufficient to confer cell-type selective expression. Mucosal vascular addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 expressed by NIH 3T3 cells was biologically active, as it supported the adhesion of TK-1 T cells in an alpha4beta7-dependent fashion. The expression of MAdCAM-1 by fibroblasts, and melanomas suggests MAdCAM-1 may play a role in regulating host responses in the periphery, leucocyte transmigration across nonendothelial boundaries, or the homotypic interactions of some malignant melanomas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Euphemia Leung
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
92
|
Grayson MH, Hotchkiss RS, Karl IE, Holtzman MJ, Chaplin DD. Intravital microscopy comparing T lymphocyte trafficking to the spleen and the mesenteric lymph node. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2003; 284:H2213-26. [PMID: 12586641 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00999.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Lymphocyte rolling velocity is determined largely by interactions between leukocyte alpha(4)-integrin (CD49d) and L-selectin and mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule-1 (MAdCAM-1) in mesenteric postcapillary venules and Peyer's patch high endothelial venules (HEVs). The role of these interactions in other tissue sites of lymphocyte emigration is not known. With the use of real-time intravital confocal microscopy, we found that rolling velocities of T lymphocytes in the murine mesenteric lymph node (MLN) HEV also depend on L-selectin and CD49d. However, in the murine spleen, rolling velocities of T lymphocytes are not influenced by the loss of L-selectin and CD49d. With the use of FITC-dextran and TIE2-GFP mice, we further defined the microvascular compartments of the spleen and showed that adherence of T cells is localized to regions in the white pulp that are not lined by endothelial cells and have shear rates similar to bone marrow sinusoids. These results establish that T cell trafficking to the spleen differs from trafficking to other secondary lymphoid organs and suggest that the mechanical properties of the blood-filtering role of the spleen are important in T cell accumulation in the organ.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell H Grayson
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
93
|
Steiniger B, Rüttinger L, Barth PJ. The three-dimensional structure of human splenic white pulp compartments. J Histochem Cytochem 2003; 51:655-64. [PMID: 12704213 DOI: 10.1177/002215540305100511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The precise arrangement of B- and T-lymphocytes in the different compartments of the human splenic white pulp is still largely unknown. We therefore performed a 3D reconstruction of 150 serial sections of a representative adult human spleen alternately stained for CD3 and CD20. The results indicate that the T-cell regions of human spleens may be interrupted by B-cell follicles. Therefore, there is no continuous periarteriolar lymphatic T-cell sheath (PALS) around white pulp arterioles. An arteriole may be surrounded by T-lymphocytes at one level, then run across a follicle without any T-cells around, and finally re-enter a T-cell region. T- and B-cell compartments are intricately interdigitated in the human splenic white pulp. CD4(+) T-lymphocytes and the typical fibroblasts of the T-cell region may extend as a thin shell at the follicular surface within the marginal zone. On the other hand, IgD(++) B-cells continue from the follicular outer marginal zone along the surface of the T-cell region. Our findings indicate that the microanatomy of the splenic white pulp differs between humans and rodents. This may have consequences for the immigration of recirculating lymphocytes and for initial interactions among antigen-specific T- and B-lymphocytes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Birte Steiniger
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Marburg, Germany.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
94
|
Abstract
The spleen can be a troublesome specimen for the surgical pathologist, not only because experience with the range of "normal" splenic histology is limited by its rarity but also because there is an often a frustrating discordance between the patient's clinical condition and the perceived findings. Patients with a dramatic clinical presentation that points to splenic pathology ("hypersplenism" or marked splenomegaly) not infrequently have no discernable or have barely perceptible histologic abnormalities of the spleen. Similarly, patients whose spleens contain histologic findings that seem to deviate significantly from the "norm" (histiocytic proliferations, vasoformative lesions, stromal hyperplasia) may have no clinically detectable hematologic complaints. For most pathologists, the frame of reference for normal splenic histomorphology derives largely from experience with autopsy spleens and spleens removed for trauma or immune thrombocytopenia. These are all settings in which pre-existing disease, the immune status of the patient, and therapy influence the findings and--in cases in which fixation has been delayed--even the ability to make the findings. This review presents practical aspects of splenic development and immunoarchitecture and relates this to the pathologist's approach in evaluating the abnormal spleen and assists in resolving such discordances. Benign conditions that contrast with the subjects of subsequent articles in this issue are emphasized.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Madeleine D Kraus
- Division of Immunopathology, Department of Pathology, Weill Medical College of Cornell Medical Center, New York, NY 10021, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
95
|
Abstract
Splenic marginal zone lymphoma (SMZL) is a specific low-grade small B-cell lymphoma that is incorporated in the World Health Organization classification. Characteristic features are splenomegaly, moderate lymphocytosis with villous morphology, intrasinusoidal pattern of involvement of various organs, especially bone marrow, and relative indolent course. Tumor progression with increase of blastic forms and aggressive behavior are observed in a minority of patients. Molecular and cytogenetic studies have shown heterogeneous results probably because of the lack of standardized diagnostic criteria. To date, no definitive therapy has been established. Therapeutic options include treatment abstention, splenectomy, splenic irradiation, and chemotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vito Franco
- Istituto di Anatomia e Istologia Patologica and Divisione di Ematologia con TMO, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
96
|
Abstract
The steps involved in lymphocyte homing to the white pulp cords of the spleen are poorly understood. We demonstrate here that the integrins lymphocyte function associated (LFA)-1 and alpha 4 beta 1 make essential and mostly overlapping contributions necessary for B cell migration into white pulp cords. T cell entry to the white pulp is also reduced by blockade of LFA-1 and alpha 4 beta 1. The LFA-1 ligand, intercellular adhesion molecule 1 is critical for lymphocyte entry and both hematopoietic cells and radiation-resistant cells contribute to this requirement. Vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 contributes to the alpha 4 beta 1 ligand requirement and a second ligand, possibly fibronectin, also plays a role. By contrast with the entry requirements, antigen-induced movement of B cells from follicles to the outer T zone is not prevented by integrin blocking antibodies. Comparison of the distribution of integrin-blocked B cells and B cells treated with the G alpha i inhibitor, pertussis toxin, early after transfer reveals in both cases reduced accumulation in the inner marginal zone. These observations suggest that chemokine receptor signaling and the integrins LFA-1 and alpha 4 beta 1 function together to promote lymphocyte transit from the marginal zone into white pulp cords.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charles G Lo
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
97
|
Morse HC, McCarty T, Qi CF, Torrey TA, Naghashfar Z, Chattopadhyay SK, Fredrickson TN, Hartley JW. B lymphoid neoplasms of mice: characteristics of naturally occurring and engineered diseases and relationships to human disorders. Adv Immunol 2003; 81:97-121. [PMID: 14711054 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2776(03)81003-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Herbert C Morse
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
98
|
Zandvoort A, Timens W. The dual function of the splenic marginal zone: essential for initiation of anti-TI-2 responses but also vital in the general first-line defense against blood-borne antigens. Clin Exp Immunol 2002; 130:4-11. [PMID: 12296846 PMCID: PMC1906503 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2249.2002.01953.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The splenic marginal zone (S-MZ) is especially well equipped for rapid humoral responses and is unique in its ability to initiate an immune response to encapsulated bacteria (T-cell independent type 2 (TI-2) antigens). Because of the rapid spreading through the blood, infections with blood-borne bacteria form a major health risk. To cope with blood-borne antigens, a system is needed that can respond rapidly to a great diversity of organisms. Because of a number of unique features, S-MZ B cells can respond rapid and efficient to all sorts of blood-borne antigens. These unique features include a low blood flow microenvironment, low threshold for activation, high expression of complement receptor 2 (CR2, CD21) and multireactivity. Because of the unique high expression of CD21 in a low flow compartment, S-MZ B cells can bind and respond to TI-2 antigens even with relatively low-avid B cell receptors. Although TI-2 antigens are in general poorly opsonized by classic opsonins, a particular characteristic of these antigens is their ability to bind very rapidly to complement fragment C3d without the necessity of previous immunoglobulin binding. TI-2 primed S-MZ B cells, already by first passage through the germinal centre, will meet antigen-C3d complexes bound to follicular dendritic cells, allowing unique immediate isotype switching. This explains that the primary humoral response to TI-2 antigens is unique in its characterization by a rapid increase in IgM concurrent with IgG antibody levels.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Zandvoort
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University Hospital Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | | |
Collapse
|
99
|
Abstract
Microanatomical compartments of the human spleen are yet under evaluation as most of the present information comes from experiments on animals with different anatomical structures. Immune staining of stromal and blood-born cells by cell surface antigens facilitates the differentiation of functional microanatomical compartmentalization of immune organs, including the spleen. Twenty-two specimens from healthy adult subjects with the average age of 35.6 +/- 13.8 (Range 17 to 58) years were included in this study. Monoclonal antibodies used in this study were supplied from the 5th, 6th and 7th International Workshops and Conferences on Human Leukocyte Differentiation Antigens. Tetraspan antigens presented a rather unique staining pattern in the human spleen, suggesting special roles for each (CD9, CD53, CD63, CD151 and CD231) in certain locations. Sinus lining cells presented a distinctive antigenic profile, sharing both endothelial cell (CD31, CD36, CD54, CD62P, CD102, CD105, CD106 and CD146) and macrophage lineage characteristics. The sheathed capillaries were not restricted to the perifollicular zone alone. Extracellular matrix receptors (CD49 a, CD49 b, CD49 c, CD49 e, CD49f, CD29 and CD44) stained the penicillary arterioles and vascular smooth muscle. These molecules were also found on the vascular endothelium. Leukocyte antigens (CD11a, CD11b, CD22, CD43, CD45, CD45RB, CD45RO and CD50) were mainly expressed in the white and red pulp of the spleen at different intensities, excluding the penicillary arterioles. Activation antigens (CD26, CD71 and CD98) presented a diffuse and broad staining pattern. In conclusion, microanatomical compartmentalization, microcirculation and function of the human spleen were evaluated using a wide panel of monoclonal antibodies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Petek Korkusuz
- Hacettepe University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Histology and Embryology, Ankara, Turkey.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|