Molecular evolution of thyroid peroxidase

Increasing diversity of human thyroperoxidase generated by alternative splicing. Characterized by molecular cloning of new transcripts with single- and multispliced mRNAs

The human thyroperoxidase (hTPO) gene is composed of 17 exons. The longest complete cDNA sequence determined so far contains a full-length hTPO (TPO1) encoding a 933-amino acid polypeptide. Several mRNA species encoding for hTPO isoforms are present in normal thyroid tissues, including TPO2 with exon 10 deleted and TPOzanelli with exon 16 deleted. In the present study, we established the existence of two new single-spliced transcripts, TPO4 and TPO5, lacking exons 14 and 8, respectively. Upon transfecting the TPO4 cDNA into Chinese hamster ovary cells, it was observed that TPO4 is able to reach the cell surface, is enzymatically active, and is able to be recognized by a panel of 12 monoclonal antibodies directed against hTPO, whereas TPO5 does not fold correctly and is unable to reach the cell surface. In normal tissues, the expression of TPO4 mRNA was examined by performing quantitative reverse transcription PCR. This deleted TPO mRNA amounted to 32 +/- 11% of the total TPO mRNAs. In the same tissues, the TPO2, TPOzanelli, and TPO5 amounted to 35 +/- 12%, 36 +/- 14%, and approximately 10%, respectively. The sum of these four species (not including TPO1) was more than 100%, possibly due to the presence of multispliced mRNAs. This possibility was tested, and three new variants were identified: TPO2/3, lacking exons 10 and 16, TPO2/4, lacking exons 10 and 14, and an unexpected variant, TPO6, corresponding to the deletion of exons 10, 12, 13, 14, and 16. In conclusion, these results indicate the existence of five new transcripts. One of them, TPO4, codes for an enzymatically active protein, whereas TPO5 is unable to fold correctly. The functional significance of the other newly spliced mRNA variants still remains to be elucidated, but these results might help to explain the heterogeneity of the hTPO purified from the thyroid gland.

Tyrosine cross-linking of extracellular matrix is catalyzed by Duox, a multidomain oxidase/peroxidase with homology to the phagocyte oxidase subunit gp91phox

High molecular weight homologues of gp91phox, the superoxide-generating subunit of phagocyte nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)-oxidase, have been identified in human (h) and Caenorhabditis elegans (Ce), and are termed Duox for "dual oxidase" because they have both a peroxidase homology domain and a gp91phox domain. A topology model predicts that the enzyme will utilize cytosolic NADPH to generate reactive oxygen, but the function of the ecto peroxidase domain was unknown. Ce-Duox1 is expressed in hypodermal cells underlying the cuticle of larval animals. To investigate function, RNA interference (RNAi) was carried out in C. elegans. RNAi animals showed complex phenotypes similar to those described previously in mutations in collagen biosynthesis that are known to affect the cuticle, an extracellular matrix. Electron micrographs showed gross abnormalities in the cuticle of RNAi animals. In cuticle, collagen and other proteins are cross-linked via di- and trityrosine linkages, and these linkages were absent in RNAi animals. The expressed peroxidase domains of both Ce-Duox1 and h-Duox showed peroxidase activity and catalyzed cross-linking of free tyrosine ethyl ester. Thus, Ce-Duox catalyzes the cross-linking of tyrosine residues involved in the stabilization of cuticular extracellular matrix.

A large family of class III plant peroxidases

Class III plant peroxidase (POX), a plant-specific oxidoreductase, is one of the many types of peroxidases that are widely distributed in animals, plants and microorganisms. POXs exist as isoenzymes in individual plant species, and each isoenzyme has variable amino acid sequences and shows diverse expression profiles, suggesting their involvement in various physiological processes. Indeed, studies have provided evidence that POXs participate in lignification, suberization, auxin catabolism, wound healing and defense against pathogen infection. Little, however, is known about the signal transduction for inducing expression of the pox genes. Recent studies have provided information on the regulatory mechanisms of wound- and pathogen-induced expression of some pox genes. These studies suggest that pox genes are induced via different signal transduction pathways from those of other known defense-related genes.

Mutations affecting the calcium-binding site of myeloperoxidase and lactoperoxidase

Both myeloperoxidase (MPO) and lactoperoxidase (LPO) contain high affinity bound calcium, which has been suggested to play a structural role. Asp-96 in MPO, a residue next to the histidine distal from the heme prosthetic group, has been assigned to the calcium-binding site of the enzyme by X-ray crystallography. Multiple sequence alignment of known animal peroxidases has revealed that the calcium-binding site is highly conserved. In this study, we replaced Asp-96 in MPO and the counterpart Asp-227 in LPO both with Ala by site-directed mutagenesis. The level of peroxidase activity in insect cells infected with recombinant baculoviruses and their culture supernatants was reduced to virtually zero as a result of these mutations. Immunoblotting revealed that these mutant peroxidases were expressed in the cells but not secreted as effectively as the wild-type enzymes. Our findings suggest that a functional calcium-binding site is essential for the biosynthesis of active animal peroxidases.

Peroxidases

The family of human peroxidases described includes myeloperoxidase, eosinophil peroxidase, uterine peroxidase, lactoperoxidase, salivary peroxidase, thyroid peroxidase and prostaglandin H1/2 synthases. The chemical identity of the peroxidase compound I and II oxidation states for the different peroxidases are compared. The identities of the distal and proximal amino acids of the catalytic site of each peroxidase are also compared. The gene characteristics and chromosomal location of the human peroxidase family have been tabulated and their molecular evolution discussed. Myeloperoxidase polymorphism and the mutations identified so far that affect myeloperoxidase activity and modulate their susceptibility to disease is described. The mechanisms for hypohalous and hypothiocyanate formation by the various peroxidases have been compared. The cellular function of the peroxidases and their hypohalites have been described as well as their inflammatory effects. The peroxidase catalysed cooxidation of drugs and xenobiotics that results in oxygen activation by redox cycling has been included. Low-density lipoprotein oxidation (initiation of atherosclerosis), chemical carcinogenesis, idiosyncratic drug reactions (e.g. agranulocytosis), liver necrosis or teratogenicity initiated by the cooxidation of endogenous substrates, plasma amino acids, drugs and xenobiotics catalysed by peroxidases or peroxidase containing cells have also been compared. Finally, peroxidase inhibitors currently in use for treating various diseases are described.

Thyroid oxidase (THOX2) gene expression in the rat thyroid cell line FRTL-5

A cDNA encoding an NADPH oxidase flavoprotein was isolated from the rat thyroid gland. The predicted 1517-residue polypeptide was 82.5% identical to the human THOX2/DUOX2 and 74% similar to THOX1/DUOX1. Rat THOX2 lacks a stretch of 30 residues, corresponding to one exon in the human gene sequence. THOX2 mRNA was found to be expressed in cultured FRTL-5 cells. The level of THOX2 mRNA was increased by cAMP in these cells and it was decreased in the thyroids of rats treated with the antithyroid drug methimazole, unlike the TPO and NIS mRNAs. Since it was found in the intestine, duodenum, and colon, in addition to thyroid, we suggest that it be called LNOX, the new family of long homologs of NOX flavoproteins rather than THOX and/or DUOX.