Early transition to oral antibiotic therapy for community-acquired pneumonia: duration of therapy, clinical outcomes, and cost analysis

The costs and consequences of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection treatments in Canada

BACKGROUND

A multinational randomized controlled trial has shown a trend toward early discharge of patients taking oral linezolid versus intravenous vancomycin (IV) in the treatment of methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections. Infection treatments resulting in shorter hospitalization durations are associated with cost savings from the hospital perspective.

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether similar economic advantages are associated with oral linezolid, the costs and consequences of linezolid use following vancomycin IV versus the existing practice in the treatment of infections caused by MRSA were compared.

METHODS

The charts of all patients admitted to one of three tertiary care teaching hospitals between January 1, 1997 and August 31, 2000 and treated with vancomycin IV for an active MRSA infection (skin and soft tissue only) were reviewed. Based on the vancomycin IV chart review data set and a simulated linezolid data set, the clinical consequences and the associated costs of MRSA treatment with vancomycin IV, and oral and IV forms of linezolid were quantified and compared within the framework of a cost-consequence analysis.

RESULTS

Patients treated with oral and IV forms of linezolid compared with the existing practice had a shorter length of stay and required fewer home IV care services, which resulted in a cost savings of $750 (2001 values) to the Canadian health care perspective.

CONCLUSIONS

The estimated cost savings associated with linezolid use not only offset the higher acquisition cost of the anti-infective, but may be substantial to health care systems across Canada, especially as the incidence of MRSA continues to rise.

Community-acquired pneumonia: influence of management practices on length of hospital stay

AIMS

To identify variation in the management of -community-acquired pneumonia between two New Zealand hospitals and the factors that may account for any differences.

METHODS

A 12-month, prospective two-centre study was conducted. Between July 1999 and July 2000, 474 adult patients with community-acquired pneumonia were enrolled: 304 in Christchurch Hospital and 170 in Waikato Hospital. The patients were similar in age, sex, prior antibiotic use and comorbidity. There was no significant difference in the clinical outcomes for the patients at the two centres.

RESULTS

The mean duration of i.v. antibiotic therapy was 1.7 versus 3.0 days (P < 0.001) and length of stay (LOS) was 3.0 versus 5.9 days (P < 0.001) for Waikato and Christchurch Hospitals, respectively. Using multivariate analysis, we could account for 61% of the observed variation in LOS. Duration of i.v. antibiotic therapy independently accounted for 16% of variation in LOS compared with age (2%), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, duration of fever, intensive care unit admission and centre of admission (all <1%). For the duration of i.v. antibiotics, centre of admission, largely reflecting clinician practice at each centre, independently accounted for 13% of variation, compared with duration of fever (5%), admission to the Intensive Care Unit (4%), Pneumonia Severity Index score (3%) and bacteraemia (3%).

CONCLUSION

Of the identifiable factors, variations in clinician behaviour outweighed the influence of patient factors on the duration of i.v. antibiotic therapy, which in turn was the major determinant of LOS for patients hospitalised with community-acquired pneumonia. An early switch from i.v. to oral antibiotic therapy in conjunction with early discharge planning may significantly reduce LOS without compromising patient outcomes.

Management of community-acquired pneumonia: a focus on conversion from hospital to the ambulatory setting

Patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) are treated in hospital or in the ambulatory care setting depending on the severity of illness. Despite numerous guidelines proposed, there is no agreement on specific criteria for hospitalization other than the clinicians' experience. The purpose of this review is to discuss the importance of the appropriate choice and timely administration of antibacterial agents, either in the hospital or in the outpatient setting. Since a high proportion of CAP patients will not have an etiologic agent identified at the time of initiation of treatment, the choice of antibacterial therapy is usually empiric. Antibacterial agents with activity against pneumococci and atypical pathogens causing pneumonia are the preferred choices. Macrolides, doxycycline, or respiratory fluoroquinolones have been recommended by various guidelines committees in North America for the treatment of pneumonia in patients with or without underlying comorbidities. Because of the increasing resistance to beta-lactams as well other antibacterial agents such as macrolides, doxycycline, and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (cotrimoxazole), it is important that clinicians are aware of local statistics on resistance to Streptococcus pneumoniae, as infection with this bacterium is associated with high rates of morbidity and mortality. More recently, fluoroquinolone resistance has been reported, but the percentage of pneumococcal strains resistant to this agent is relatively low compared with the other antibacterial agents. Switch (intravenous to oral) therapy is recommended for hospitalized patients with CAP to facilitate early discharge, which has been shown to improve patient satisfaction and reduce hospital costs. Early conversion to oral therapy has not been shown to be associated with increased complications or higher mortality. Following prompt intravenous therapy and stabilization, patients with CAP should be treated with oral therapy in the ambulatory setting.

Evaluation of an algorithm for switching from IV to PO therapy in clinical practice in patients with community-acquired pneumonia

BACKGROUND

In patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), switching from IV to PO antibiotics offers advantages over IV therapy alone, including improved cost-effectiveness through reductions in the length of hospital stay and treatment costs.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determine whether a method for switching therapy in clinical practice could be used in patients with CAP and whether differences were found in the duration of IV treatment and length of hospital stay between the 5 risk classes of the Pneumonia Severity Index (PSI) after the therapy switch.

METHODS

This was a prospective, observational study of patients aged >/=18 years presenting with CAP at our teaching hospital between December 1998 and November 2000. Microbiological and serological tests were performed, and signs and symptoms of CAP, C-reactive protein levels, and white blood cell counts were assessed throughout treatment and at the 1-month follow-up. Patients were stratified by PSI risk class. When the patient's temperature had been normalized for 72 hours and respiratory symptoms (dyspnea, coughing, and thoracal pain) had improved, patients were switched from IV to PO therapy (same drug).

RESULTS

The study included 180 patients with CAP Clinical cure was seen in 174 (97%) patients. No significant difference between the 5 risk classes was found in duration of therapy. Patients in risk class V remained hospitalized for a significantly longer period than patients in risk classes I through IV (P < 0.001). Furthermore, after patients were switched to PO antibiotics, the level of C-reactive protein decreased in patients in all risk classes and was normalized by follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

In the population studied, use of specific criteria (ie, absence of fever for 72 hours and reduction in respiratory symptoms) allowed successful switch from IV to PO antibiotic therapy for the treatment of CAP Duration of therapy was not affected by PSI risk class, but those in risk class V were hospitalized longer than other risk classes.

Economic aspects of pneumococcal pneumonia: a review of the literature

In this review, the economic aspects of pneumococcal pneumonia are analysed, including the costs, cost effectiveness and cost benefit of treatment and prevention. We identified eight cost-of-illness studies, 15 analyses comparing the costs of different treatment options and 15 economic evaluations of prevention that met our search criteria. The studies were conducted largely in Europe and the US. Most pertained to community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in general, without specific analysis of pneumococcus-related illness. Many of the studies were considered to be of poor quality for the following reasons: comparison without randomisation or control variables, disregard of health outcomes, small sample size, restriction of costs to drug costs and vague or disputable sources of cost information. In the US, hospitalisation costs resulting from CAP can be estimated to be between US 7,000 dollars and US 8,000 dollars per admission or US 4 million dollars per 100,000 population. Hospitalisation costs are significant (representing about 90% of total costs), but are much lower in Europe than in the US (one-third to one-ninth of the US estimates in the UK and Spain, respectively). In general, economic studies of treatment for pneumococcal pneumonia are in line with clinical evidence. A drug with proven clinical effectiveness would also appear to be supported from an economic stand point. Furthermore, economic data support an early switch from an intravenous to an oral antibacterial, the use of quinolones for inpatients with CAP, and also the use of guidelines built on clinical evidence. Of all the possible preventive strategies for pneumococcal pneumonia, only vaccination has been subjected to economic evaluation. Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine seems relatively cost effective (and potentially cost saving) for those between 65 and 75 years of age, for military recruits and for HIV positive patients with a sufficiently high CD4 cell count. Evaluations of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) indicate the price of the vaccine to be the main determinant of cost effectiveness. As the current price is high (in the order of US 50 dollars per dose), the economic attractiveness of the universal PCV vaccination strategies hinges on the potential for price reductions and the willingness of decision makers to adopt a societal perspective.

Sequential IV/PO moxifloxacin treatment of patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia

BACKGROUND

IV/PO moxifloxacin was evaluated in the treatment of hospitalized patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia (CAP).

METHODS

Data were pooled from two prospective, randomized studies. In the multinational study, patients received 7-14 days IV/PO moxifloxacin 400 mg QD or IV/ PO amoxicillin clavulanate 1200/625 mg TID +/- IV/PO clarithromycin 500 mg BID. In the North American study, patients received 7-14 days IV/PO moxifloxacin 400 mg QD, IV/ PO alatrofloxacin/trovafloxacin 200 mg QD, or IV/PO levofloxacin 500 mg QD. The primary endpoint was clinical success at the test-to-cure visit. Severe CAP was defined according to the 1993 ATS criteria.

RESULTS

In the clinically valid population, clinical success rates were 88% (167/190) for moxifloxacin- and 83% (155/186) for comparator-treated patients (95% CI = -1.9%, 12.2%). Corresponding clinical success rates for the microbiologically valid population were 87% (59/68) and 84% (54/64), respectively (95% CI = 8.6%, 15.0%). A switch from IV to PO therapy was made by day 5 of therapy for 73% of moxifloxacin- vs. 60% of comparator-treated patients (P < 0.01). Clinical success rates were similar in a retrospective analysis using the revised 2001 ATS definition of severe CAP. Mortality rates were 6% (15/241) and 10% (24/238) in the moxifloxacin and comparator treatment groups, respectively. The incidence of drug-related adverse events was similar in both treatment groups.

CONCLUSION

Sequential IV/PO moxifloxacin 400 mg QD is as safe and effective as other fluoroquinolones and a beta-lactam/macrolide combination for treating hospitalized patients with severe CAP.

Implementation of an evidence-based guideline to reduce duration of intravenous antibiotic therapy and length of stay for patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized controlled trial

PURPOSE

Patients with pneumonia often remain hospitalized after they are stable clinically, and the duration of intravenous antibiotic therapy is a rate-limiting step for discharge. The purpose of this study was to determine whether implementation of an evidence-based guideline would reduce the duration of intravenous antibiotic therapy and length of stay for patients hospitalized with pneumonia.

METHODS

In a seven-site, cluster randomized clinical trial, we enrolled 325 control and 283 intervention patients who were admitted by one of 116 physician groups. Within site, physician groups were assigned randomly to receive a practice guideline alone (control arm) or a practice guideline that was implemented using a multifaceted strategy (intervention arm). The effectiveness of guideline implementation was measured by the duration of intravenous antibiotic therapy and length of stay; differences in the rates of discontinuation and hospital discharge were assessed with proportional hazards models. Medical outcomes were assessed at 30 days.

RESULTS

Intravenous antibiotic therapy was discontinued somewhat more quickly in the intervention group (hazard ratio [HR] =1.23; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.00 to 1.52; P = 0.06) than in the control group. Intervention patients were discharged more quickly, but the difference was not statistically significant (HR = 1.16; 95% CI: 0.97 to 1.38; P = 0.11). Fewer intervention (55% [157/283]) than control (63% [206/325]) patients had medical complications during the index hospitalization (P = 0.04), with no differences in other medical outcomes, including mortality, rehospitalization, and return to usual activities, between treatment arms.

CONCLUSIONS

The multifaceted guideline implementation strategy resulted in a slight reduction in the duration of intravenous antibiotic therapy and a nonsignificant reduction in length of stay, without affecting patient outcomes.

An economic evaluation of sequential i.v./po moxifloxacin therapy compared to i.v./po co-amoxiclav with or without clarithromycin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To evaluate costs, clinical consequences, and cost-effectiveness from a German and French health-care system perspective of sequential i.v./po moxifloxacin monotherapy compared to co-amoxiclav with or without clarithromycin (AMC +/- CLA) in patients with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) who required parenteral treatment.

METHODS

Costs and consequences over 21 days were evaluated based on clinical cure rates 5 to 7 days after treatment and health resource use reported for the TARGET multinational, prospective, randomized, open-label trial. This trial compared sequential i.v./po monotherapy with moxifloxacin (400 mg qd) to i.v./po co-amoxiclav (1.2 g i.v./625 mg po tid) with or without clarithromycin (500 mg bid) for 7 to 14 days in hospitalized patients with CAP. Since no country-by-treatment interaction was found in spite of some country differences for length of hospital stays, resource data (antimicrobial treatment, hospitalization, and out-of-hospital care) from all centers were pooled and valued using German and French unit prices to estimate CAP-related cost to the German Sickness Funds and French public health-care sector, respectively.

RESULTS

Compared to AMC +/- CLA, treatment with moxifloxacin resulted in 5.3% more patients achieving clinical cure 5 to 7 days after therapy (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.2 to 11.8%), increased speed of response (1 day sooner for median time to first return to apyrexia, p = 0.008), and a reduction in hospital stay by 0.81 days (95% CI, - 0.01 to 1.63) within the 21-day time frame. Treatment with moxifloxacin resulted in savings of 266 euro and 381 euro for Germany and France respectively, primarily due to the shorter length of hospital stay. Cost-effectiveness acceptability curves show moxifloxacin has a > or = 95% chance of being cost saving from French and German health-care perspectives, and higher probability of being cost-effective at acceptability thresholds up to 2,000 euro per additional patient cured.

CONCLUSION

i.v./po monotherapy with moxifloxacin shows clinical benefits including increased speed of response and is cost-effective compared to i.v./po AMC +/- CLA in the treatment of CAP.

Effect of linezolid versus vancomycin on length of hospital stay in patients with complicated skin and soft tissue infections caused by known or suspected methicillin-resistant staphylococci: results from a randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Complicated skin and soft tissue infections are common surgical indications usually requiring patients to be hospitalized, and are often caused by gram-positive bacteria, including methicillin-resistant staphylococci such as MRSA. Vancomycin has been the standard treatment for methicillin-resistant staphylococcal infections in many countries, but its intravenous-only formulation for systemic infections often confines patients to the hospital for the treatment. Linezolid, a novel oxazolidinone antibiotic available in intravenous and 100% bioavailable oral forms, was shown in a randomized trial to be as efficacious as vancomycin for suspected or proven methicillin-resistant staphylococcal infections. To determine if oral linezolid can reduce length of hospital stay (LOS) when compared to vancomycin, we compared the LOS for the 230 complicated skin and soft tissue infection patients enrolled in this trial.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Patients received up to four weeks of linezolid (intravenous followed by optional oral) or vancomycin (intravenous only), followed by up to four weeks of observation. Unadjusted LOS was estimated using Kaplan-Meier survival functions, whereas the log-logistic survival analysis model was used to estimate the multivariate-adjusted LOS controlling for patient demographics and selected baseline clinical variables. Analysis was done on the intent-to-treat (n = 230) sample as well as on two subsamples of the clinically evaluable (n = 144) and surgical site infection (n = 114) patients.

RESULTS

The unadjusted Kaplan-Meier median LOS was five days shorter for the linezolid group than the vancomycin group in the intent-to-treat sample (9 vs. 14 days, p = 0.052). It was eight days shorter (8 vs. 16 days, p = 0.0025) in the clinically evaluable sample, but the difference in the surgical site infection sample was not significant (10 vs. 14 days; p = 0.29). The linezolid group's unadjusted mean LOS was 1.7, 5.3 and 0.8 days shorter in the intentto-treat, clinically evaluable, and surgical site infection samples, respectively. After adjusting for age, gender, race, geographic region, bacteremia, type of inpatient location, and number of concurrent medical conditions using the log-logistic model, between-treatment differences in the multivariate-adjusted median LOS decreased to 3, 6, and 3 days, whereas the differences in mean LOS increased to 3.1, 6.5 and 2.5 days for the intent-to-treat, clinically evaluable, and surgical site infection samples (p < 0.01, < 0.01, and < 0.10), respectively. When the between-treatment differences in LOS were expressed as odds ratio of hospital discharges, multivariate-adjustment increased the odds ratios in favor of linezolid for all the three samples.

CONCLUSION

Results from this randomized trial show that linezolid can significantly reduce LOS for patients with complicated skin and soft tissue infections from suspected or confirmed methicillin-resistant staphylococci.

Appropriate use of antimicrobial agents: challenges and strategies for improvement

The use of inadequate empirical antimicrobial therapy is common in intensive care unit patients and contributes to a number of poor outcomes. Selecting appropriate antimicrobial therapy is complicated by many factors, including the large number of agents available, the presence of resistant organisms, and the general desire among practitioners to use the most focused therapy available. An important aspect of appropriate antimicrobial use is prompt initiation of adequate empirical therapy, which has been shown to improve mortality rates in hospitalized patients with pneumonia and other serious infections. Other key strategies include streamlining antimicrobial therapy when a pathogen is identified and switching from intravenous to oral therapy when clinically indicated. In addition, antibiotic rotation (or cycling) has been evaluated in several trials as a means to minimize resistance. Promoting appropriate antimicrobial therapy ultimately will require a multidisciplinary, system-oriented, institution-specific approach because each intensive care unit has its own unique flora and antimicrobial resistance patterns.

Improving the quality of pneumonia care that patients experience

PURPOSE

Although many hospitals have reported attempts to reduce length of stay for patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia, few have included efforts to educate patients to prepare them for earlier discharges. We aimed to improve patients' knowledge about pneumonia and their experiences with inpatient care as part of a multifaceted intervention that included attempts to reduce unnecessary time on intravenous antibiotics and length of hospital stay.

METHODS

We developed guidelines for the appropriate duration of intravenous antibiotics in patients with community-acquired pneumonia and collected baseline data retrospectively on patients discharged from October 1996 through April 1997. We surveyed these patients to assess knowledge and experience with care. Beginning in July 1997, we conducted a series of physician and nurse educational interventions (lectures, feedback of performance data, one-on-one education by peers). Patients received education about pneumonia from their nurses and a specially developed educational brochure. Following the interventions, we collected clinical and survey data on patients with pneumonia discharged from October 1997 through April 1998.

RESULTS

Among patients who responded to the survey (163 in the preintervention period; 114 in the postintervention period), fewer reported that no one went out of the way to help them (preintervention, 37% [n = 60]; postintervention, 6% [n = 7]; P = 0.001), more reported that they received all the information they needed to recover (75% [n = 122] vs. 94% [n = 107], P = 0.02), and more reported that they were told about danger signals of relapse (46% [n = 75] vs. 60% [n = 68], P = 0.03). Mean (+/- SD) time on intravenous antibiotics decreased from 5.0 +/- 3.7 days to 4.3 +/- 3.3 days (P = 0.04).

CONCLUSION

The interventions improved patients' knowledge and experiences with care, while decreasing time on intravenous antibiotics.

Achieving a safe and early discharge for patients with community-acquired pneumonia

The rationale for achieving an early discharge for patients with CAP is that reduced length of stay can result in lower costs. When hospital discharge is premature, however, use of resources after discharge from the hospital may increase. This situation could increase overall cost and worsen quality of care. The objective should be to achieve a safe and early discharge. Several studies have evaluated methods for achieving this goal. Key findings from these studies are as follows: When a patient achieves clinical stability (e.g., systolic blood pressure, > or = 90 mm Hg; heart rate, < or = 100 beats/min; respiratory rate, < or = 24 breaths/min; temperature, < or = 38.3 degrees C [101 degrees F]; oxygen saturation, > or = 90%; able to eat; and stable mental status) or fulfills appropriate criteria (see Table 2), the patient may be eligible for switch from parenteral to oral antibiotics and early discharge. For many patients, this switch or discharge may occur on day 3 of hospitalization. When a patient is switched from parenteral to oral antibiotics, in many cases there does not appear to be a demonstrable clinical benefit to in-hospital observation. Elimination of in-hospital observation for patients who do not have an obvious reason for continued hospitalization potentially could reduce length of stay by 1 day. Improving efficiency of care reduces length of stay. This reduction may be accomplished by implementing clinical pathways, identifying and correcting causes of medically unnecessary hospital days, initiating early discharge planning, enlisting the services of a discharge coordinator, and organizing outpatient parenteral antibiotic treatment programs. These strategies are effective in many but not all patients, and their application should be tempered with careful clinical judgment.

[Community-acquired pneumonia: influence of the duration of intravenous antibiotic therapy on hospital stay and the cost-benefit ratio]

Intravenous antibiotic therapy (IVAT) is usually prescribed for patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). Studies have associated prolonged IVAT with longer hospital stays and higher costs. The aim of this study was to determine the factors that influence the expense generated by and mean stay of patients hospitalized for pneumonia, with special attention to the influence of IVAT duration.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

One hundred twenty-five CAP patients admitted to the respiratory medicine wards of our hospital were randomly assigned to five different staff physicians. IVAT was prescribed following the norms of the Spanish Society of Respiratory Medicine and Chest Surgery (SEPAR). IVAT was withdrawn when the attending physician considered it appropriate. We collected epidemiological, comorbidity, clinical and analytical data. Complications were recorded and severity of CAP was classified using the model proposed by Fine. Follow-up care was given at an outpatient clinic until symptoms disappeared and chest films resolved. Multivariate analysis determined the factors predicting mean hospital stay and high cost. Costs were calculated based on data issued by the billing department.

RESULTS

The mean cost of care was 307,274 pesetas, mean duration of IVAT was 5.8 days and mean hospital stay was 9.4 days. Multivariate analysis showed that cost was related to mean hospital stay and IVAT. Mean hospital stay was associated with IVAT, the presence of respiratory insufficiency and the day of the week when admission took place (with weekend admission leading to longer stays).

CONCLUSIONS

The duration of IVAT in CAP influences mean hospital stay and cost, without adding any evident therapeutic benefit (in the group of patients selected). Recommendations for diagnosing and treating CAP may be advisable.

Efficacy and safety of oral and early-switch therapy for community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized controlled trial

PURPOSE

We sought to determine the safety, efficacy, and cost of oral therapy for patients with community-acquired pneumonia. In patients with nonsevere pneumonia, conventional (parenteral) treatment was compared with the oral route; in patients with severe pneumonia, conventional treatment was compared with early switch from parenteral to oral therapy.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

We randomly assigned 85 hospitalized patients with nonsevere pneumonia to one of two groups: 41 received oral antimicrobials from admission, and 44 received parenteral antimicrobials until they had been afebrile for 72 hours before switching to oral treatment. We randomly assigned 103 patients with severe pneumonia who had initially been treated with parenteral antimicrobials to one of two groups: 48 were switched to oral therapy after 48 hours of treatment (early switch), and 55 received a full 10-day course of parenteral antibiotics.

RESULTS

Among patients with nonsevere pneumonia, there were no deaths in the oral treatment group, and one death (2%) in the parenteral treatment group (95% confidence interval [CI] for between-group [oral minus parenteral] difference: -7% to 2%, P = 0.3). The time to resolution of morbidity was < or =5 days in 34 (83%) patients in the oral treatment group and 39 (88%) patients in the parenteral treatment group (P = 0.5); there were treatment failures in 4 (10%) patients in the oral treatment group and 14 (32%) patients in the parenteral treatment group (P = 0.02). Among patients with severe pneumonia, there was one (2%) death in the early-switch group and no deaths in the full course of parenteral antibiotics groups (95% CI for between-group [early switch vs. full course] difference: -2% to 6%, P = 0.5). The time to resolution of morbidity was < or =5 days in 38 (79%) patients in the early-switch group and 41 (75%) in the full-course group (P = 0.3). There were 12 (25%) treatment failures in the early-switch group and 13 (24%) in the full-course group (P = 0.9). There were fewer adverse events in the oral and early-switch groups, primarily due to lower rates of infusion-related phlebitis. Significant cost savings, mainly due to a shorter hospitalization, occurred among patients with severe pneumonia in the early-switch group.

CONCLUSION

Inpatients with nonsevere community-acquired pneumonia can be effectively and safely treated with oral antimicrobials from the time of admission, whereas those with severe pneumonia can be treated with early-switch therapy.

Sequential antibiotic therapy

Antimicrobials are an important source of hospital expenditure. Traditionally, severe bacterial infections have been treated initially with intravenous antibiotics, followed by physician-directed switch to oral therapy. Unfortunately this approach results in unnecessary prolongation of intravenous treatment, with all its inherent disadvantages. Sequential antibiotic therapy, however, ensures an early switch to the oral route when the patient is clinically stable. This increasingly employed strategy is safe and results in improved quality and cost-effectiveness of health care. To ensure timely and appropriate switch, such programmes need to be underpinned by clear guidelines and supported by a multidisciplinary team. In the future, key questions, such as what is the optimal time of switch for specific infections, and can conditions such as osteomyelitis and endocarditis be efficaciously treated with oral therapy, need to be answered. Only then will clinicians be able to practise evidence-based infection management incorporating sequential antimicrobial therapy.

Community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly: a practical guide to treatment

The incidence of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), an infectious disease, sharply increases among the elderly and the main risk factor for CAP in this age group is chronic comorbidity. The use of the term CAP in the elderly population should be reserved for pneumonia acquired outside of the nursing home setting, since nursing home-acquired pneumonia differs from CAP in terms of its aetiology and clinical manifestations. The main aetiology for CAP is Streptococcus pneumoniae, but atypical pathogens also play an important role as causative agents. The clinical presentations of CAP in the elderly can be different from those in younger patients, and therefore it is important to be aware of and familiar with these differences to avoid unnecessary delays in reaching the correct diagnosis. Imaging is essential to diagnose CAP and to assess its severity. Clinical and laboratory indices can be used to identify elderly patients with CAP who are at low risk for mortality and who can be treated as outpatients. The decision not to hospitalise elderly patients with CAP is contingent on a good clinical condition and the existence of home support systems. The aetiology of CAP cannot be determined on the basis of clinical manifestations, imaging or routine laboratory test results, and the initial antibiotic therapy for elderly patients with CAP should be empirical, based on accepted guidelines. In the light of developments in recent years, elderly patients with CAP, except those who are severely ill, can be treated empirically with once-daily antibiotic monotherapy in the initial phase, using a third-generation fluoroquinolone preparation, such as sparfloxacin, levofloxacin or moxifloxacin, or a new macrolide such as clarithromycin, azithromycin or dirithromycin. In addition to antibiotic therapy, it is critically important to identify and treat the physiological disturbances that accompany CAP as well as decompensation of chronic comorbid conditions. As soon as the patient's condition permits, oral antibiotic therapy should replace intravenous therapy and early discharge from the hospital should be considered. Since influenza and pneumococcus immunisation can reduce morbidity and mortality from CAP, it is important to implement regular immunisation programmes in the primary care setting.

Novel oral cephalosporins

The therapeutic use of oral cephalosporins to treat infectious diseases continues to challenge clinicians; many attempts have been made over recent years to improve the efficacy and spectrum of these anti-infectives. Many oral cephalosporins are in development and include cefdinir, cefprozil, cefetamet pivoxil, cefcapene pivoxil, cefcanel daloxate hydrochloride in Phase II trials, S-1090 in Phase III trials and the novel compounds E1100, E1101 and BRL-57347. Differences between these drugs are sometimes subtle and the improvement over existing compounds modest, although recent cephalosporins have shown greater activity against Gram-negative bacterial infections. A better knowledge of the pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic interrelationships of existing oral cephalosporins is demanded for a more rational use of these compounds and to avoid the subsequent development of resistance. Perhaps with such an approach, the perceived need for new cephalosporins will diminish.