Asymmetrical Polymer Vesicles with a “Stealthy” Outer Corona and an Endosomal-Escape-Accelerating Inner Corona for Efficient Intracellular Anticancer Drug Delivery

Synthesis and pH-responsive self-assembly behavior of a fluorescent amphiphilic triblock copolymer mPEG-b-PCL-b-PDMAEMA-g-PC for the controlled intracellular delivery of doxorubicin

Schematic illustration of the pH-responsive self-assembly of a mPEG-b-PCL-b-PDMAEMA-g-PC copolymer with fluorescent coumarin units for controlling DOX release.

Hairy cylinders based on a coil-comb-coil copolymer

We present the preparation and possible formation mechanism of hairy cylinders self-assembled from a coil-comb-coil copolymer.

Bioinspired polymer vesicles and membranes for biological and medical applications

Biological membranes play an essential role in living organisms by providing stable and functional compartments, supporting signalling and selective transport. Combining synthetic polymer membranes with biological molecules promises to be an effective strategy to mimic the functions of cell membranes and apply them in artificial systems.

Fabrication and Characterization of a Novel Anticancer Drug Delivery System: Salecan/Poly(methacrylic acid) Semi-interpenetrating Polymer Network Hydrogel

Salecan is a novel linear extracellular polysaccharide with a linear backbone of 1-3-linked glucopyranosyl units. Salecan is suitable for preparing hydrogels for biomedical applications due to its prominent physicochemical and biological profiles. In this contribution, a variety of innovative semi-interpenetrating polymer network (semi-IPN) hydrogels consisting of Salecan and poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA) were developed via free radical polymerization for controlled drug delivery. The successful fabrication of the semi-IPNs was verified by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and thermogravimetric (TGA) measurements. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and rheology analyses demonstrated that the morphological and mechanical behaviors of the resultant hydrogels were strongly affected by the contents of Salecan and cross-linker N,N'-methylenebis(acrylamide) (BIS). Moreover, the swelling properties of these hydrogels were systematically investigated, and the results indicated that they exhibited pH sensitivity. The drug delivery applications of such fabricated hydrogels were further evaluated from which doxorubicin (Dox) was chosen as a model drug for in vitro release and cell viability studies. It was found that the Dox release from the Dox-loaded hydrogels was significantly accelerated when the pH of the release media decreased from 7.4 to 5.0. Toxicity assays confirmed that the blank hydrogels had negligible toxicity to normal cells, whereas the Dox-loaded hydrogels remained high in cytotoxicity for A549 and HepG2 cancer cells. All of these attributes implied that the new proposed semi-IPNs serve as potential drug delivery platforms for cancer therapy.

Rationally Separating the Corona and Membrane Functions of Polymer Vesicles for Enhanced T₂ MRI and Drug Delivery

It is an important challenge to in situ grow ultrafine super-paramagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) in drug carriers such as polymer vesicles (also called polymersomes) while keeping their biodegradability for enhanced T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and drug delivery. Herein, we present a new strategy by rationally separating the corona and membrane functions of polymer vesicles to solve the above problem. We designed a poly(ethylene oxide)-block-poly(ε-caprolactone)-block-poly(acrylic acid) (PEO43-b-PCL98-b-PAA25) triblock copolymer and self-assembled it into polymer vesicle. The PAA chains in the vesicle coronas are responsible for the in situ nanoprecipitation of ultrafine SPIONs, while the vesicle membrane composed of PCL is biodegradable. The SPIONs-decorated vesicle is water-dispersible, biocompatible, and slightly cytotoxic to normal human cells. Dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, energy disperse spectroscopy, and vibrating sample magnetometer revealed the formation of ultrafine super-paramagnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles (1.9 ± 0.3 nm) in the coronas of polymer vesicles. Furthermore, the CCK-8 assay revealed low cytotoxicity of vesicles against normal L02 liver cells without and with Fe3O4 nanoparticles. The in vitro and in vivo MRI experiments confirmed the enhanced T2-weighted MRI sensitivity and excellent metastasis in mice. The loading and release experiments of an anticancer drug, doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX·HCl), indicated that the Fe3O4-decorated magnetic vesicles have potential applications as a nanocarrier for anticancer drug delivery. Moreover, the polymer vesicle is degradable in the presence of enzyme such as Pseudomonas lipases, and the ultrafine Fe3O4 nanoparticles in the vesicle coronas are confirmed to be degradable under weakly acidic conditions. Overall, this decoration-in-vesicle-coronas strategy provides us with a new insight for preparing water-dispersible ultrafine super-paramagnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticles with promising theranostic applications in biomedicine.

EpCAM-Antibody-Labeled Noncytotoxic Polymer Vesicles for Cancer Stem Cells-Targeted Delivery of Anticancer Drug and siRNA

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) have the capability to initiate tumor, to sustain tumor growth, to maintain the heterogeneity of tumor, and are closely linked to the failure of chemotherapy due to their self-renewal and multilineage differentiation capability with an innate resistance to cytotoxic agents. Herein, we designed and synthesized a novel anti-EpCAM (epithelial cell adhesion molecule)-monoclonal-antibody-labeled CSCs-targeting, noncytotoxic and pH-sensitive block copolymer vesicle as a nanocarrier of anticancer drug and siRNA (to overcome CSCs drug resistance by silencing the expression of oncogenes). This vesicle shows high delivery efficacy of both anticancer drug doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX·HCl) and siRNA to the CSCs because it is labeled by the monoclonal antibodies to the CSCs-surface-specific marker. Compared to non-CSCs-targeting vesicles, the DOX·HCl or siRNA loaded CSCs-targeting vesicles exhibited much better CSCs killing and tumor growth inhibition capabilities with lower toxicity to normal cells (IC50,DOX decreased by 80%), demonstrating promising potential applications in nanomedicine.

Synthesis of functionalized Pluronic-b-poly(ε-caprolactone) and the comparative study of their pendant groups on the cellular internalization behavior

This study focuses on the synthesis of Pluronic-b-poly(ε-caprolactone) bearing benzyl-oxycarbonylmethyl and carboxylic groups and the comparative study to investigate the influence of the different pendant groups on the cellular behavior. The functionalized Pluronic-b-poly(ε-caprolactone) bearing two kinds of pendant groups are synthesized via ring-opening polymerization of ε-caprolactone and 6-(benzyl-oxycarbonyl methyl)-ε-caprolactone and followed by deprotection respectively. The structure of the copolymers is confirmed and the polymeric micelles are formed by an emulsion/solvent evaporation technique. The critical micelle concentrations are improved compared with Pluronic F127, the morphologies of the micelles are spherical with the diameter on nano scale and good colloidal stability. The copolymers have good cytocompatibility and the comparative study reveals that cellular internalization, digesting by lysosome and intracellular distribution are affected by the pendant groups, moreover, the endocytosis pathway is determined by the pendant groups. Therefore, the definite internalization mechanism is beneficial for the design of polymeric micellar carriers to achieve intra- or extracellular modes of drug delivery and provide better access to either cell membrane or intracellular organelles.

pH-Responsive chimaeric pepsomes based on asymmetric poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(l-leucine)-b-poly(l-glutamic acid) triblock copolymer for efficient loading and active intracellular delivery of doxorubicin hydrochloride

pH-Responsive chimaeric polypeptide-based polymersomes (refer to as pepsomes) were designed and developed from asymmetric poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(l-leucine)-b-poly(l-glutamic acid) (PEG-PLeu-PGA, PEG is longer than PGA) triblock copolymers for efficient encapsulation and triggered intracellular delivery of doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX·HCl). PEG-PLeu-PGA was conveniently prepared by sequential ring-opening polymerization of l-leucine N-carboxyanhydride and γ-benzyl-l-glutamate N-carboxyanhydride using PEG-NH2 as an initiator followed by deprotection. Pepsomes formed from PEG-PLeu-PGA had unimodal distribution and small sizes of 64-71 nm depending on PLeu block lengths. Interestingly, these chimaeric pepsomes while stable at pH 7.4 were quickly disrupted at pH 5.0, likely due to alternation of ionization state of the carboxylic groups in PGA that shifts PGA blocks from hydrophilic and random coil structure into hydrophobic and α-helical structure. DOX·HCl could be actively loaded into the watery core of pepsomes with a high loading efficiency. Remarkably, the in vitro release studies revealed that release of DOX·HCl was highly dependent on pH, in which about 24.0% and 75.7% of drug was released at pH 7.4 and 5.0, respectively, at 37 °C in 24 h. MTT assays demonstrated that DOX·HCl-loaded pepsomes exhibited high antitumor activity, similar to free DOX·HCl in RAW 264.7 cells. Moreover, they were also potent toward drug-resistant MCF-7 cancer cells (MCF-7/ADR). Confocal microscopy studies showed that DOX·HCl-loaded pepsomes delivered and released drug into the cell nuclei of MCF-7/ADR cells in 4 h, while little DOX·HCl fluorescence was observed in MCF-7/ADR cells treated with free drug under otherwise the same conditions. These chimaeric pepsomes with facile synthesis, efficient drug loading, and pH-triggered drug release behavior are an attractive alternative to liposomes for targeted cancer chemotherapy.

Reduction-responsive core-shell-corona micelles based on triblock copolymers: novel synthetic strategy, characterization, and application as a tumor microenvironment-responsive drug delivery system

A facile and effective approach was established for fabricating core-shell-corona micelles by self-assembly of poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(acrylic acid-co-tert-butyl acrylate)-poly(ε-caprolactone) (PEG43-b-P(AA30-co-tBA18)-b-PCL53) triblock copolymer, synthesized via a combination of ring-opening polymerization (ROP), atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), click chemistry, and hydrolyzation. The prenanovehicles with three different hydrolysis degrees from PEG43-b-PtBA48-b-PCL53 were developed to evaluate the drug loading capacity (DLC) and drug encapsulation efficiency (DEE). After cross-linking with a disulfide bond to regulate the drug release kinetics, the spherical core-shell-corona micelles with average diameter of 52 ± 4 nm were obtained in aqueous solution. The reduction-responsive cross-linked micelles showed a slow sustained release in normal physiological conditions and a rapid release upon exposure to simulated tumor intracellular conditions. In addition, the cytotoxic analysis and HepG2 cell growth inhibition assays demonstrated their remarkable biocompatibility and similar excellent anticancer activity as the free doxorubicin (DOX), which has also been revealed by the confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) analysis. So the reduction-sensitive core-shell-corona micelles are expected to be promising tumor microenvironment-responsive nanovehicles for hydrophobic drugs by glutathione (GSH) triggering.

pH-Responsive polymeric Janus containers for controlled drug delivery

In this study, we have successfully designed and fabricated pH-responsive polymeric Janus hollow spheres for controlled drug release.

“Breathing” unimolecular micelles based on a novel star-like amphiphilic hybrid copolymer

Novel unimolecular micelles that possess a pH-induced “breathing” feature are presented in this paper.

Docetaxel-loaded PEO–PPO–PCL/TPGS mixed micelles for overcoming multidrug resistance and enhancing antitumor efficacy

A schematic diagram of DTX-loaded PEO–PPO–PCL/TPGS mixed micelles in vivo for overcoming multidrug resistance and enhancing antitumor efficacy.

Asymmetrical vesicles: convenient in situ RAFT synthesis and controllable structure determination

Asymmetrical vesicles of a block copolymer were prepared, and the vesicle structure was found to be dependent on the degree of polymerization of solvophilic blocks.

Synthesis and unimolecular micelles of amphiphilic copolymer with dendritic poly(l-lactide) core and poly(ethylene oxide) shell for drug delivery

A novel type of amphiphilic copolymer POSS-(G₃-PLLA-b-PEO-COOH)₈ with a hydrophobic third-generation dendritic PLLA core and a functionalized hydrophilic PEO shell with surface carboxylic groups was synthesized as a carrier for drug delivery.

Silkworm cocoons by cylinders self-assembled from H-shaped alternating polymer brushes

We report a novel silkworm cocoon-like nanostructure based on the 3D hierarchical self-assembly of cylinders which are spontaneously formed by an H-shaped polymer brush comprising a disulfide-bridged spacer and two brushes with alternating PEG and PCL side chains. Crystalline of PCL between adjacent cylinders bridges cylinders.

Organic/inorganic composite membranes based on poly(L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) and mesoporous silica for effective bone tissue engineering

Fabrication of membranes with excellent biocompatibility and bioactivity remains an important technical challenge in bone tissue engineering. In this paper, poly(l-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-SBA15 (Santa Barbara Amorphous 15) composite membranes were prepared by using an electrospinning technique; PLGA was used as a biocompatible and biodegradable polymer and SBA15 was used as a mesoporous silica. The PLGA-SBA15 composite membrane facilitates the cell attachment and the cell proliferation versus pure PLGA membrane where human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) were seeded. Furthermore, the analysis of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity indicated that this PLGA-SBA15 composite membrane has better osteogenic induction compared with the pure PLGA membrane. Moreover, the presence of SBA15 increased the loading efficiency of the recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2) to the membranes. Furthermore, the composite membrane had optimized sustained release of rhBMP-2. Overall, this PLGA-SBA15 composite is an excellent material for bone tissue engineering.

pH-responsive PDMS-b-PDMAEMA micelles for intracellular anticancer drug delivery

A series of poly(dimethysiloxane)-b-poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PDMS-b-PDMAEMA) block copolymers were synthesized with atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). In aqueous solution the polymers self-assembled into micelles with diameters between 80 and 300 nm, with the ability to encapsulate DOX. The polymer with the shortest PDMAEMA block (5 units) displayed excellent cell viability, while micelles containing longer PDMAEMA block lengths (13 and 22 units) led to increased cytotoxicity. The carriers released DOX in response to a decrease in pH from 7.4 to 5.5. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) revealed that nanoparticles were taken up by endocytosis into acidic cell compartments. Furthermore, DOX-loaded nanocarriers exhibited intracellular pH-response as changes in cell morphology and drug release were observed within 24 h.

Antibacterial polymeric nanostructures for biomedical applications

A topical review on recent advances in the research and applications of antimicrobial polymeric nanostructures, such as silver-decorated polymeric nanostructures, and polymeric micelles and vesicles based on antimicrobial polymers and antimicrobial peptides.