Scratching the Surface: Fundamental Investigations of Tribology with Atomic Force Microscopy

Operational and environmental conditions regulate the frictional behavior of two-dimensional materials

The friction characteristics of single-layer h-BN, MoS₂, and graphene were systematically investigated via friction force microscopy measurements at various operational (e.g., normal force and sliding speed) and environmental (e.g., relative humidity and thermal annealing) conditions. The low friction characteristics of these single-layer materials were clearly observed from the normal force-dependent friction results, and their interfacial shear strengths were further estimated using a Hertz-plus-offset model. In addition, speed-dependent friction characteristics clearly demonstrated two regimes of friction as a function of sliding speed - the first is the logarithmic increase in friction with sliding speed regime at sliding speeds smaller than the critical speed and the second is the friction plateau regime at sliding speeds greater than the critical speed. Fundamental parameters such as effective shape of the interaction potential and its corrugation amplitude for these single-layer materials were characterized using the thermally-activated Prandtl-Tomlinson model. Moreover, friction of single-layer h-BN, MoS₂, and graphene was found to increase with relative humidity and decrease with thermal annealing; these trends were attributed to the diffusion of water molecules to the interface between the single-layer materials and their substrates, which leads to an increase in the puckering effect at the tip-material interface and interaction potential corrugation. The enhanced puckering effect was verified via molecular dynamics simulations. Overall, the findings enable a comprehensive understanding of friction characteristics for several classes of two-dimensional materials, which is important to elucidate the feasibility of using these materials as protective and solid-lubricant coating layers for nanoscale devices.

Friction and Adhesion of Different Structural Defects of Graphene

Graphene structural defects, namely edges, step-edges, and wrinkles, are susceptible to severe mechanical deformation and stresses under tribo-mechanical operations. Applied forces may cause deformation by folding, buckling, bending, and tearing of these defective sites of graphene, which lead to a remarkable decline in normal and friction load bearing capacity. In this work, we experimentally quantified the maximum sustainable normal and friction forces, corresponding to the damage thresholds of the different investigated defects as well as their pull-out (adhesion) forces. Horizontal wrinkles (with respect to the basal plane, i.e., folded) sustained the highest normal load, up to 317 nN, during sliding, whereas for vertical (i.e., standing) wrinkles, step-edges, and edges, the load bearing capacities are up to 113, 74, and 63 nN, respectively. The related deformation mechanisms were also experimentally investigated by varying the normal load up to the initiation of the damage from the defects and extended with the numerical results from molecular dynamics and finite element method simulations.

In situ characterization of nanoscale contaminations adsorbed in air using atomic force microscopy

Under ambient conditions, surfaces are rapidly modified and contaminated by absorbance of molecules and a variety of nanoparticles that drastically change their chemical and physical properties. The atomic force microscope tip-sample system can be considered a model system for investigating a variety of nanoscale phenomena. In the present work we use atomic force microscopy to directly image nanoscale contamination on surfaces, and to characterize this contamination by using multidimensional spectroscopy techniques. By acquisition of spectroscopy data as a function of tip-sample voltage and tip-sample distance, we are able to determine the contact potential, the Hamaker constant and the effective thickness of the dielectric layer within the tip-sample system. All these properties depend strongly on the contamination within the tip-sample system. We propose to access the state of contamination of real surfaces under ambient conditions using advanced atomic force microscopy techniques.

The contact mechanics challenge: tribology meets soft matter

In the fall of 2015, Martin Müser suggested a Contact Mechanics Challenge for the Tribology community. The challenge was an ambitious effort to compare a wide variety of theoretical and computational contact-mechanics approaches, and involved researchers voluntarily tackling the same hypothetical contact problem. The result is an impressive collection of innovative approaches - including a surprise experimental effort - that highlight the continuing importance of surface contact mechanics and the challenges of solving these large-scale problems. Here, we describe how the Contact Mechanics Challenge also reveals exciting opportunities for the Soft Matter community to engage intensely with classical and emerging problems in tribology, surface science, and contact mechanics.

Multiscale Frictional Properties of Cotton Fibers: A Review

This review discusses the important concept of cotton fiber friction at both the macro- and nanoscale. First, the technological importance of fiber friction and its role in fiber breakage during fiber processing is discussed. Next, previous studies on frictional properties of cotton fibers are reviewed and different experimental procedures to measure friction between fibers or against another surface are evaluated. Friction models developed to explain friction process during various experimental procedures are considered and their limitations are discussed. Since interpretation of friction processes at the macroscale can be challenging (mainly due to difficulties in analyzing the multiple asperities in contact), a separate section is devoted to surveying studies on the emerging field of single-asperity friction experiments with atomic force microscope (AFM). Special attention is given to studies on nanoscale frictional characteristics of rough viscoelastic surfaces (e.g., plant cuticular biopolymers and cotton fibers). Due to the close relationship between friction and adhesion hysteresis at the nanoscale, adhesion studies with AFM on viscoelastic surfaces are also reviewed. Lastly, recommendations are made for future research in the field of frictional properties of cotton fibers.

Decoding the Vertical Phase Separation and Its Impact on C8-BTBT/PS Transistor Properties

Disentangling the details of the vertical distribution of small semiconductor molecules blended with polystyrene (PS) and the contact properties are issues of fundamental value for designing strategies to optimize small-molecule:polymer blend organic transistors. These questions are addressed here for ultrathin blends of 2,7-dioctyl[1]benzothieno[3,2-b][1]benzothiophene (C8-BTBT) and PS processed by a solution-shearing technique using three different blend composition ratios. We show that friction force microscopy (FFM) allows the determination of the lateral and vertical distribution of the two materials at the nanoscale. Our results demonstrate a three-layer stratification of the blend: a film of C8-BTBT of few molecular layers with crystalline order sandwiched between a PS-rich layer at the bottom (a few nm thick) acting as a passivating dielectric layer and a PS-rich skin layer on the top (∼1 nm) conferring stability to the devices. Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) measurements performed in operating organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) reveal that the devices are strongly contact-limited and suggest contact doping as a route for device optimization. By excluding the effect of the contacts, field-effect mobility values in the channel as high as 10 cm² V^-1 s^-1 are obtained. Our findings, obtained via a combination of FFM and KPFM, provide a satisfactory explanation of the different electrical performances of the OFETs as a function of the blend composition ratio and by doping the contacts.

Surface Chemistry Dependence of Mechanochemical Reaction of Adsorbed Molecules-An Experimental Study on Tribopolymerization of α-Pinene on Metal, Metal Oxide, and Carbon Surfaces

Mechanochemical reactions between adsorbate molecules sheared at tribological interfaces can induce association of adsorbed molecules, forming oligomeric and polymeric products often called tribopolymers). This study revealed the role or effect of surface chemistry of the solid substrate in mechanochemical polymerization reactions. As a model reactant, α-pinene was chosen because it was known to readily form tribopolymers at the sliding interface of stainless steel under vapor-phase lubrication conditions. Eight different substrate materials were tested-palladium, nickel, copper, stainless steel, gold, silicon oxide, aluminum oxide, and diamond-like carbon (DLC). All metal substrates and DLC were initially covered with surface oxide species formed naturally in air or during the oxidative sample cleaning. It was found that the tribopolymerization yield of α-pinene is much higher on the substrates that can chemisorb α-pinene, compared to the ones on which only physisorption occurs. From the load dependence of the tribopolymerization yield, it was found that the surfaces capable of chemisorption give a smaller critical activation volume for the mechanochemical reaction, compared to the ones capable of physisorption only. On the basis of these observations and infrared spectroscopy analyses of the adsorbed molecules and the produced polymers, it was concluded that the mechanochemical reaction mechanisms might be different between chemically reactive and inert surfaces and that the chemical reactivity of the substrate surface greatly influences the tribochemical polymerization reactions of adsorbed molecules.

Stick-Slip Instabilities for Interfacial Chemical Bond-Induced Friction at the Nanoscale

Earthquakes are generally caused by unstable stick-slip motion of faults. This stick-slip phenomenon, along with other frictional properties of materials at the macroscale, is well-described by empirical rate and state friction (RSF) laws. Here we study stick-slip behavior for nanoscale single-asperity silica-silica contacts in atomic force microscopy experiments. The stick-slip is quasiperiodic, and both the amplitude and spatial period of stick-slip increase with normal load and decrease with the loading point (i.e., scanning) velocity. The peak force prior to each slip increases with the temporal period logarithmically, and decreases with velocity logarithmically, consistent with stick-slip behavior at the macroscale. However, unlike macroscale behavior, the minimum force after each slip is independent of velocity. The temporal period scales with velocity in a nearly power law fashion with an exponent between -1 and -2, similar to macroscale behavior. With increasing velocity, stick-slip behavior transitions into steady sliding. In the transition regime between stick-slip and smooth sliding, some slip events exhibit only partial force drops. The results are interpreted in the context of interfacial chemical bond formation and rate effects previously identified for nanoscale contacts. These results contribute to a physical picture of interfacial chemical bond-induced stick-slip, and further establish RSF laws at the nanoscale.

Evolution of real contact area under shear and the value of static friction of soft materials

The frictional properties of a rough contact interface are controlled by its area of real contact, the dynamical variations of which underlie our modern understanding of the ubiquitous rate-and-state friction law. In particular, the real contact area is proportional to the normal load, slowly increases at rest through aging, and drops at slip inception. Here, through direct measurements on various contacts involving elastomers or human fingertips, we show that the real contact area also decreases under shear, with reductions as large as 30[Formula: see text], starting well before macroscopic sliding. All data are captured by a single reduction law enabling excellent predictions of the static friction force. In elastomers, the area-reduction rate of individual contacts obeys a scaling law valid from micrometer-sized junctions in rough contacts to millimeter-sized smooth sphere/plane contacts. For the class of soft materials used here, our results should motivate first-order improvements of current contact mechanics models and prompt reinterpretation of the rate-and-state parameters.

In situ analytical techniques for battery interface analysis

Interface is a key to high performance and safe lithium-ion batteries or lithium batteries.

Salt Dependence of the Tribological Properties of a Surface-Grafted Weak Polycation in Aqueous Solution

The nanoscopic adhesive and frictional behaviour of end-grafted poly[2-(dimethyl amino)ethyl methacrylate] (PDMAEMA) films (brushes) in contact with gold- or PDMAEMA-coated atomic force microscope tips in potassium halide solutions with different concentrations up to 300 mM is a strong function of salt concentration. The conformation of the polymers in the brush layer is sensitive to salt concentration, which leads to large changes in adhesive forces and the contact mechanics at the tip-sample contact, with swollen brushes (which occur at low salt concentrations) yielding large areas of contact and friction-load plots that fit JKR behaviour, while collapsed brushes (which occur at high salt concentrations) yield sliding dominated by ploughing, with conformations in between fitting DMT mechanics. The relative effect of the different anions follows the Hofmeister series, with I^- collapsing the brushes more than Br^- and Cl^- for the same salt concentration.

Multibond Model of Single-Asperity Tribochemical Wear at the Nanoscale

Single-asperity wear experiments and simulations have identified different regimes of wear including Eyring- and Archard-like behaviors. A multibond dynamics model has been developed based on the friction model of Filippov et al. [Phys. Rev. Lett. 92, 135503 (2004)]. This new model captures both qualitatively distinct regimes of single-asperity wear under a unified theoretical framework. In this model, the interfacial bond formation, wearless rupture, and transfer of atoms are governed by three competing thermally activated processes. The Eyring regime holds under the conditions of low load and low adhesive forces; few bonds form between the asperity and the surface, and wear is a rare and rate-dependent event. As the normal stress increases, the Eyring behavior of wear rate breaks down. A nearly rate-independent regime arises under high load or high adhesive forces, in which wear becomes very nearly, but not precisely, proportional to sliding distance. In this restricted regime, the dependence of wear rate per unit contact area is nearly independent of the normal stress at the point of contact. In true contact between rough elastic surfaces, where contact area is expected to grow linearly with normal load, this would lead to behavior very similar to that described by the Archard equation. Detailed comparisons to experimental and molecular dynamics simulation investigations illustrate both Eyring and Archard regimes, and an intermediate crossover regime between the two.

Adhesion, Stiffness, and Instability in Atomically Thin MoS2 Bubbles

We measured the work of separation of single and few-layer MoS₂ membranes from a SiO_x substrate using a mechanical blister test and found a value of 220 ± 35 mJ/m². Our measurements were also used to determine the 2D Young's modulus (E_2D) of a single MoS₂ layer to be 160 ± 40 N/m. We then studied the delamination mechanics of pressurized MoS₂ bubbles, demonstrating both stable and unstable transitions between the bubbles' laminated and delaminated states as the bubbles were inflated. When they were deflated, we observed edge pinning and a snap-in transition that are not accounted for by the previously reported models. We attribute this result to adhesion hysteresis and use our results to estimate the work of adhesion of our membranes to be 42 ± 20 mJ/m².

From Monochrome to Technicolor: Simple Generic Approaches to Multicomponent Protein Nanopatterning Using Siloxanes with Photoremovable Protein-Resistant Protecting Groups

We show that sequential protein deposition is possible by photodeprotection of films formed from a tetraethylene-glycol functionalized nitrophenylethoxycarbonyl-protected aminopropyltriethoxysilane (NPEOC-APTES). Exposure to near-UV irradiation removes the protein-resistant protecting group, and allows protein adsorption onto the resulting aminated surface. The protein resistance was tested using proteins with fluorescent labels and microspectroscopy of two-component structures formed by micro- and nanopatterning and deposition of yellow and green fluorescent proteins (YFP/GFP). Nonspecific adsorption onto regions where the protecting group remained intact was negligible. Multiple component patterns were also formed by near-field methods. Because reading and writing can be decoupled in a near-field microscope, it is possible to carry out sequential patterning steps at a single location involving different proteins. Up to four different proteins were formed into geometric patterns using near-field lithography. Interferometric lithography facilitates the organization of proteins over square cm areas. Two-component patterns consisting of 150 nm streptavidin dots formed within an orthogonal grid of bars of GFP at a period of ca. 500 nm could just be resolved by fluorescence microscopy.

Enhancement of Friction by Water Intercalated between Graphene and Mica

Common experience shows that friction converts mechanical energy into heat. The first part of this process is vibrational excitation of atoms at the interface between rubbing bodies. The second part is the removal of the vibration energy by transferring it from the interface to the substrate. However, it is difficult to disentangle the excitation and energy transfer processes. We solved this by using a system consisting of a SiO₂-terminated tip sliding over graphene deposited on mica with intercalated water between them. The intercalated water was found to increase friction by a factor of ∼3 relative to dry mica. Density functional theory calculations show that water broadens the spectral range of graphene vibrations-particularly the low-frequency flexural modes-thus providing new excitation channels and also by increasing the overlap with the atomic vibrations of the mica substrate, which facilitates coupling and energy transfer.

Multislip Friction with a Single Ion

A trapped ion transported along a periodic potential is studied as a paradigmatic nanocontact frictional interface. The combination of the periodic corrugation potential and a harmonic trapping potential creates a one-dimensional energy landscape with multiple local minima, corresponding to multistable stick-slip friction. We measure the probabilities of slipping to the various minima for various corrugations and transport velocities. The observed probabilities show that the multislip regime can be reached dynamically at smaller corrugations than would be possible statically, and can be described by an equilibrium Boltzmann model. While a clear microscopic signature of multislip behavior is observed for the ion motion, the frictional force and dissipation are only weakly affected by the transition to multistable potentials.

Friction between van der Waals Solids during Lattice Directed Sliding

Nanometer-scale crystals of the two-dimensional oxide molybdenum trioxide (MoO₃) were formed atop the transition metal dichalcogenides MoS₂ and MoSe₂. The MoO₃ nanocrystals are partially commensurate with the dichalcogenide substrates, being aligned only along one of the substrate's crystallographic axes. These nanocrystals can be slid only along the aligned direction and maintain their alignment with the substrate during motion. Using an AFM probe to oscillate the nanocrystals, it was found that the lateral force required to move them increased linearly with nanocrystal area. The slope of this curve, the interfacial shear strength, was significantly lower than for macroscale systems. It also depended strongly on the duration and the velocity of sliding of the crystal, suggesting a thermal activation model for the system. Finally, it was found that lower commensuration between the nanocrystal and the substrate increased the interfacial shear, a trend opposite that predicted theoretically.

Probing nanofriction and Aubry-type signatures in a finite self-organized system

Friction in ordered atomistic layers plays a central role in various nanoscale systems ranging from nanomachines to biological systems. It governs transport properties, wear and dissipation. Defects and incommensurate lattice constants markedly change these properties. Recently, experimental systems have become accessible to probe the dynamics of nanofriction. Here, we present a model system consisting of laser-cooled ions in which nanofriction and transport processes in self-organized systems with back action can be studied with atomic resolution. We show that in a system with local defects resulting in incommensurate layers, there is a transition from sticking to sliding with Aubry-type signatures. We demonstrate spectroscopic measurements of the soft vibrational mode driving this transition and a measurement of the order parameter. We show numerically that both exhibit critical scaling near the transition point. Our studies demonstrate a simple, well-controlled system in which friction in self-organized structures can be studied from classical- to quantum-regimes.

Superlubricity has been predicted and observed at an atomistic level, yet its dynamics is not well understood due to the lack of in situ characterization of contact surfaces. Kiethe et al. use a trapped two-dimensional ion crystal as a model for the study of nanofriction in self-organized structures.

Bidentate Aromatic Thiols on Gold: New Insight Regarding the Influence of Branching on the Structure, Packing, Wetting, and Stability of Self-Assembled Monolayers on Gold Surfaces

A series of 2-phenylpropane-1,3-dithiol derivatives with single (R1ArDT), double (R2ArDT), and triple (R3ArDT) octadecyloxy chains substituted at the 4-, 3,5-, and, 3,4,5-positions, respectively, on the aromatic ring were synthesized and used to form self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on gold. Insight into the relationship between the surface chain and headgroup packing densities was investigated by varying the number of surface chains for the bidentate adsorbates in these monolayers. Characterization of the resulting SAMs using ellipsometry, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, polarization modulation infrared reflection-absorption spectroscopy, and contact angle goniometry revealed that the tailgroups become more comformationally ordered and more densely packed as the number of alkyl chains per adsorbate was increased. Conversely, the molecular packing density (i.e., number of molecules per unit area) decreased as the number of alkyl chains per adsorbate was increased. Of particular interest, the desorption profiles obtained in isooctane at 80 °C suggested that the bidentate adsorbate with the most densely packed alkyl chains, R3ArDT, was significantly more stable than the other SAMs, producing the following relative order for thermal stability for the dithiolate SAMs: R3ArDT > R2ArDT > R1ArDT.

A molecular-scale portrait of domain imaging in organic surfaces

Progress in the general understanding of structure-property relationships in organic devices requires experimental tools capable of imaging structural details, such as molecular packing or domain attributes, on ultra-thin films. An operation mode of scanning force microscopy, related to friction force microscopy (FFM) and known as transverse shear microscopy (TSM), has demonstrated the ability to reveal the orientation of crystalline domains in organic surfaces with nanometer resolution. In spite of these promising results, numerous questions remain about the physical origin of the TSM domain imaging mechanism. Taking as a benchmark a PTCDI-C8 sub-monolayer, we demonstrate experimentally and theoretically that such a mechanism is the same atomic scale stick-slip ruling FFM leading to the angular dependence of both signals. Lattice-resolved images acquired on top of differently oriented PTCDI-C8 molecular domains are crucial to permit azimuthal sampling, without the need for sample rotation. The simulations reveal that, though the surface crystallography is the direct cause of the FFM and TSM signals, the manifestation of anisotropy will largely depend on the amplitude of the surface potential corrugation as well as on the temperature. This work provides a novel nanoscale strategy for the quantitative analysis of organic thin films based on their nanotribological response.

Functional dependence of resonant harmonics on nanomechanical parameters in dynamic mode atomic force microscopy

We present a combined theoretical and experimental study of the dependence of resonant higher harmonics of rectangular cantilevers of an atomic force microscope (AFM) as a function of relevant parameters such as the cantilever force constant, tip radius and free oscillation amplitude as well as the stiffness of the sample's surface. The simulations reveal a universal functional dependence of the amplitude of the 6th harmonic (in resonance with the 2nd flexural mode) on these parameters, which can be expressed in terms of a gun-shaped function. This analytical expression can be regarded as a practical tool for extracting qualitative information from AFM measurements and it can be extended to any resonant harmonics. The experiments confirm the predicted dependence in the explored 3-45 N/m force constant range and 2-345 GPa sample's stiffness range. For force constants around 25 N/m, the amplitude of the 6th harmonic exhibits the largest sensitivity for ultrasharp tips (tip radius below 10 nm) and polymers (Young's modulus below 20 GPa).

Mechanochemistry of Physisorbed Molecules at Tribological Interfaces: Molecular Structure Dependence of Tribochemical Polymerization

Physisorbed molecules at a sliding solid interface could be activated by mechanical shear and react with each other to form polymeric products that are often called tribopolymers. The dependence of the tribopolymerization yield on the applied load and adsorbate molecular structure was studied to obtain mechanistic insights into mechanochemical reactions at a tribological interface of stainless steel. Three hydrocarbon precursors containing 10 carbon atoms-α-pinene (C₁₀H₁₆), pinane (C₁₀H₁₈), and n-decane (C₁₀H₂₂)-were chosen for this study. α-Pinene and pinane are bicyclic compounds with different ring strains. N-Decane was chosen as a reference molecule without any internal strain. By comparing the adsorption isotherm of these molecules and the total volume of tribopolymer products, the reaction yield was found to be proportional to the number of adsorbed molecules. An Arrhenius-type analysis of the applied load dependence of the tribopolymerization yield revealed how the critical activation volume (ΔV*) varies with the structure of adsorbed molecules. The experimentally determined ΔV* values of α-pinene, pinane, and n-decane were 3, 8, and 10% of their molar volumes, respectively. The molecule with the largest ring strain (α-pinene) showed the smallest ΔV*, which implies the critical role of internal molecular strain in the mechanochemical initiation of polymerization reaction. The tribopolymer film synthesized in situ at the sliding interface exhibited an excellent boundary lubrication effect in the absence of any external supply of lubricant molecules.

Nanotribological properties of nanostructured poly(cysteine methacrylate) brushes

The nanomechanical properties of zwitterionic poly(cysteine methacrylate) (PCysMA) brushes grown from planar surfaces by atom transfer radical polymerisation have been characterised by friction force microscopy (FFM). FFM provides quantitative insights into polymer structure-property relationships and in particular illuminates the dependence of brush swelling on chain packing in nanostructured materials. In ethanol, which is a poor solvent for PCysMA, a linear friction-load relationship is observed, indicating that energy dissipation occurs primarily through ploughing. In contrast, in a good solvent for PCysMA such as water, a non-linear friction-load relationship is observed that can be fitted by Derjaguin-Muller-Toporov (DMT) mechanics, suggesting that the relatively small modulus of the swollen polymer leads to a large contact area and consequently a significant shear contribution to energy dissipation. The brush grafting density was varied by using UV photolysis of C-Br bonds at 244 nm to dehalogenate the surface in a controlled fashion. The surface shear strength increases initially as the brush grafting density is reduced, but then decreases for UV doses greater than 0.5 J cm^-2, reaching a limiting value when the brush thickness is ca. 50% that of a brush monolayer. Below this critical grafting density, a collapsed brush layer is obtained. For nm-scale gradient brush structures formed via interferometric lithography, the mean width increases as the period is increased, and the lateral mobility of brushes in these regions is reduced, leading to an increase in brush height as the grafted chains become progressively more extended. For a width of 260 nm, the mean brush height in water and ethanol is close to the thickness of a dense unpatterned brush monolayer synthesised under identical conditions. Both the surface shear stress measured for PCysMA brushes under water and the coefficient of friction measured in ethanol are closely correlated to the feature height, and hence to the chain conformation.

Mechanochemistry at Solid Surfaces: Polymerization of Adsorbed Molecules by Mechanical Shear at Tribological Interfaces

Polymerization of allyl alcohol adsorbed and sheared at a silicon oxide interface is studied using tribo-tests in vapor phase lubrication conditions and reactive molecular dynamics simulations. The load dependences of product formation obtained from experiments and simulations were consistent, indicating that the atomic-scale processes observable in the simulations were relevant to the experiments. Analysis of the experimental results in the context of mechanically assisted thermal reaction theory, combined with the atomistic details available from the simulations, suggested that the association reaction pathway of allyl alcohol molecules induced by mechanical shear is quite different from chemically induced polymerization reactions. Findings suggested that some degree of distortion of the molecule from its equilibrium state is necessary for mechanically induced chemical reactions to occur and such a distortion occurs during mechanical shear when molecules are covalently anchored to one of the sliding surfaces.

Mechanisms of Contact, Adhesion, and Failure of Metallic Nanoasperities in the Presence of Adsorbates: Toward Conductive Contact Design

The properties of contacting interfaces are strongly affected not only by the bulk and surface properties of contacting materials but also by the ubiquitous presence of adsorbed contaminants. Here, we focus on the properties of single asperity contacts in the presence of adsorbates within a molecular dynamics description of metallic asperity normal contact and a parametric description of adsorbate properties. A platinum-platinum asperity contact is modeled with adsorbed oligomers with variable properties. This system is particularly tailored to the context of nanoelectromechanical system (NEMS) contact switches, but the results are generally relevant to metal-metal asperity contacts in nonpristine conditions. Even though mechanical forces can displace adsorbate out of the contact region, increasing the adsorbate layer thickness and/or adsorbate/metal adhesion makes it more difficult for metal asperity/metal surface contact to occur, thereby lowering the electrical contact conductance. Contact separation is a competition between plastic necking in the asperity or decohesion at the asperity/substrate interface. The mechanism which operates at a lower tensile stress dominates. Necking dominates when the adsorbate/metal adhesion is strong and/or the adsorbate layer thickness is small. In broad terms, necking implies larger asperity deformation and mechanical work, as compared with decohesion. Optimal NEMS switch performance requires substantial contact conductance and minimal asperity deformation; these results indicate that these goals can be achieved by balancing the quantity of adsorbates and their adhesion to the metal surface.

Tip convolution on HOPG surfaces measured in AM-AFM and interpreted using a combined experimental and simulation approach

Amplitude modulated atomic force microscopy (AM-AFM) was used to examine the influence of the size of the AFM tip apex on the measured surface topography of single highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) atomic steps. Experimental measurements were complemented by molecular dynamics simulations of AM-AFM and the results from both were evaluated by comparison of the measured or simulated width of the topography at the step to that predicted using simple rigid-body geometry. The results showed that the step width, which is a reflection of the resolution of the measurement, increased with tip size, as expected, but also that the difference between the measured/simulated step width and the geometric calculation was tip size dependent. The simulations suggested that this may be due to the deformation of the bodies and the effect of that deformation on the interaction force and oscillation amplitude. Overall, this study showed that the resolution of AM-AFM measurements of atomic steps can be correlated to tip size and that this relationship is affected by the deformation of the system.

Enhanced Wear Resistance of Transparent Epoxy Composite Coatings with Vertically Aligned Halloysite Nanotubes

The influence of nanoparticle orientation on wear resistance of transparent composite coatings has been studied. Using a nozzle spray coating method, halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) were aligned in the in-plane and out-of-plane directions and in various randomly oriented states. Nanoscratching, falling sand, and Taber Abrasion tests were used to characterize the wear resistance at different length scales. Composites consistently displayed better wear resistance than pure epoxy. Samples with out-of-plane particle orientations exhibited better wear-resistant behavior than those with in-plane particle distributions. In nanoscratching tests, the out-of-plane orientation decreases the normalized scratch volume by as much as 60% compared to pure epoxy. In the falling sand and Taber Abrasion tests, out-of-plane aligned halloysite particles resulted in surfaces with smaller roughness based on stylus profilometry and SEM observations. The decrease in roughness values after these wear tests can be as large as 67% from pure epoxy to composites. Composites with higher out-of-plane particle orientation factors exhibited better light transmittance after sand impingements and other wear tests. This study suggests a useful strategy for producing material systems with enhanced mechanical durability and more durable optical properties.

Colloidal Nanoantennas for Hyperspectral Chemical Mapping

Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy enables access to chemical information with nanoscale spatial resolution and single-molecule sensitivities by utilizing optical probes that are capable of confining light to subwavelength dimensions. Because the probes themselves possess nanoscale features, they are notoriously difficult to fabricate, and more critically, can result in poor reproducibility. Here, we demonstrate high-performance, predictable, and readily tunable nanospectroscopy probes that are fabricated by self-assembly. Shaped metal nanoparticles are organized into dense layers and deposited onto scanning probe tips. When coupled to a metal surface, these probes behave like nanoantenna by supporting a strong optical resonance, producing dramatic Raman field enhancements in the range of 10(8)-10(9) with sub-50 nm spatial resolution. In contrast to other nanospectroscopy probes, our colloidal probes can be fabricated in a scalable fashion with a batch-to-batch reproducibility of ∼80% and serve as an important demonstration of bottom-up engineering.

Nanomanipulation and controlled self-assembly of metal nanoparticles and nanocrystals for plasmonics

Localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPRs) associated with metallic nanostructures offer unique possibilities for light concentration beyond the diffraction limit, which can lead to strong field confinement and enhancement in deep subwavelength regions. In recent years, many transformative plasmonic applications have emerged, taking advantage of the spectral and spatial tunability of LSPRs enabled by near-field coupling between constituent metallic nanostructures in a variety of plasmonic metastructures (dimers, metamolecules, metasurfaces, metamaterials, etc.). For example, the "hot spot" formed at the interstitial site (gap) between two coupled metallic nanostructures in a plasmonic dimer can be spectrally tuned via the gap size. Capitalizing on these capabilities, there have been significant advances in plasmon enhanced or enabled applications in light-based science and technology, including ultrahigh-sensitivity spectroscopies, light energy harvesting, photocatalysis, biomedical imaging and theranostics, optical sensing, nonlinear optics, ultrahigh-density data storage, as well as plasmonic metamaterials and metasurfaces exhibiting unusual linear and nonlinear optical properties. In this review, we present two complementary approaches for fabricating plasmonic metastructures. We discuss how meta-atoms can be assembled into unique plasmonic metastructures using a variety of nanomanipulation methods based on single- or multiple-probes in an atomic force microscope (AFM) or a scanning electron microscope (SEM), optical tweezers, and focused electron-beam nanomanipulation. We also provide a few examples of nanoparticle metamolecules with designed properties realized in such well-controlled plasmonic metastructures. For the spatial controllability on the mesoscopic and macroscopic scales, we show that controlled self-assembly is the method of choice to realize scalable two-dimensional, and three-dimensional plasmonic metastructures. In the section of applications, we discuss some key examples of plasmonic applications based on individual hot spots or ensembles of hot spots with high uniformity and improved controllability.

Generalized Hertz model for bimodal nanomechanical mapping

Bimodal atomic force microscopy uses a cantilever that is simultaneously driven at two of its eigenmodes (resonant modes). Parameters associated with both resonances can be measured and used to extract quantitative nanomechanical information about the sample surface. Driving the first eigenmode at a large amplitude and a higher eigenmode at a small amplitude simultaneously provides four independent observables that are sensitive to the tip-sample nanomechanical interaction parameters. To demonstrate this, a generalized theoretical framework for extracting nanomechanical sample properties from bimodal experiments is presented based on Hertzian contact mechanics. Three modes of operation for measuring cantilever parameters are considered: amplitude, phase, and frequency modulation. The experimental equivalence of all three modes is demonstrated on measurements of the second eigenmode parameters. The contact mechanics theory is then extended to power-law tip shape geometries, which is applied to analyze the experimental data and extract a shape and size of the tip interacting with a polystyrene surface.

A microfluidic, dual-purpose sensor for in vitro detection of Enterobacteriaceae and biotinylated antibodies

In this paper, we present a versatile, dual-purpose sensor for in vitro detection of Enterobacteriaceae (e.g. Escherichia coli) and biotinylated antibodies (e.g. IgG rabbit polyclonal antibodies), based on different detection principles for each bioanalyte. These bioanalytes are tagged individually with functionalized magnetic microparticles, suspended into a static fluid and injected into a microfluidic channel. Without the need for bulk or complicated pumping systems, the functionalized microparticles are set in motion by a magnetic force exerted on them by integrated microconductors. The fundamental detection principle is the decrease in the velocity of the microparticles that are loaded with the respective bioanalyte, due to factors inhibiting their motion. The velocity of the unloaded, bare microparticles is used as a reference. We discovered a novel mechanism on which the constrained particle motion is based; in the case of E. coli, the inhibiting factor is the enhanced Stokes' drag force due to the greater volume and altered hydrodynamic shape, whereas in the case of biotinylated antibodies, it is the increased friction force at the interface between the modified microparticle and the biosensor's surface. Friction force is for the first time employed in a scheme for resolving biomolecules. Integrated magnetic microsensors are used for the velocity measurements by detecting the microparticles' stray field. Moreover, we developed a biocompatible, easy to implement and reliable surface modification that practically diminishes the problem of bioadhesion on the sensor's surface.

Tribological characteristics of few-layer graphene over Ni grain and interface boundaries

The tribological properties of metal-supported few-layered graphene depend strongly on the grain topology of the metal substrate. Inhomogeneous distribution of graphene layers at such regions led to variable landscapes with distinguishable roughness. This discrepancy in morphology significantly affects the frictional and wetting characteristics of the FLG system. We discretely measured friction characteristics of FLG covering grains and interfacial grain boundaries of polycrystalline Ni metal substrate via an atomic force microscopy (AFM) probe. The friction coefficient of FLG covered at interfacial grain boundaries is found to be lower than that on grains in vacuum (at 10(-5) Torr pressure) and similar results were obtained in air condition. Sliding history with AFM cantilever, static and dynamic pull-in and pull-off adhesion forces were addressed in the course of friction measurements to explain the role of the out-of-plane deformation of graphene layer(s). Finite element simulations showed good agreement with experiments and led to a rationalization of the observations. Thus, with interfacial grain boundaries the FLG tribology can be effectively tuned.

Liquid-Solid Nanofriction and Interfacial Wetting

Using atomic force microscopy, the nanofriction coefficient was measured systematically for a series of liquids on planar graphite, silica and mica surfaces. This allows us to explore the quantitative interplay between nanofriction at liquid-solid interfaces and interfacial wetting. A corresponding states theory analysis shows that the nanofriction coefficient, μ = dF(F)/dF(N), where FF is the friction force and FN is the normal force, is a function of three dimensionless parameters that reflect the intermolecular forces involved and the structure of the solid substrate. Of these, we show that one parameter in particular, β = ρ(s)Δ(s)σ(ls)(2), where ρ(s) is the atomic density of the solid, Δ(s) is the spacing between layers of solid atoms, and σ(ls) is the molecular diameter that characterizes the liquid-substrate interaction, is very important in determining the friction coefficient. This parameter β, which we term the structure adhesion parameter, provides a measure of the intermolecular interaction between a liquid molecule and the substrate and also of the surface area of contact of the liquid molecule with the substrate. We find a linear dependence of μ on the structure adhesion parameter for the systems studied. We also find that increasing β leads to an increase in the vertical adhesion forces FA (the attractive force exerted by the solid surface on the liquid film). Our quantitative relationship between the nanofriction coefficient and the key parameter β which governs the vertical adhesive strength, opens up an opportunity for describing liquid flows on solid surfaces at the molecular level, with implications for the development of membrane and nanofluidic devices.

Exploring and Explaining Friction with the Prandtl-Tomlinson Model

The Prandtl-Tomlinson model of friction, first introduced in 1928 as a "conceptual model" for a single-atom contact, consists of a point mass that is dragged over a sinusoidal potential by a spring. After decades of virtual oblivion, it has recently found impressive validation for contacts comprising tens or even hundreds of atoms. To date, the Prandtl-Tomlinson model enjoys widespread popularity as depicting arguably the most insightful mechanical analogue to atomic-scale effects occurring at sliding interfaces. In this issue of ACS Nano, Pawlak et al. demonstrate the model's applicability to a true single-atom contact, thereby illustrating that simple mechanical representations can indeed go a long way toward explaining interactions at atomically defined interfaces.

AFM-based force spectroscopy for bioimaging and biosensing

AFM-based force spectroscopy shows wide bio-related applications especially for bioimaging and biosensing.

Friction Force Microscopy Analysis of Self-Adaptive W-S-C Coatings: Nanoscale Friction and Wear

Transition metal dichalcogenides (TMD) are increasingly popular due to unique structural and mechanical properties. They belong, together with graphene and similar 2D materials, to a small family of solid lubricants with potential to produce ultralow friction state. At the macroscale, low friction stems from the ability to form well-oriented films on the sliding surface (typically up to 10 nm thick), with the TMD basal planes aligned parallel to the surface. In this study, we quantitatively evaluate tribological properties of three sputtered tungsten-sulfur-carbon (W-S-C) coatings at a nanoscale using friction force microscopy. In particular, we investigate possible formation of well-ordered tungsten disulfide (WS2) layers on the coating surface. The coefficient of friction decreased with increasing load independently of coating composition or mechanical properties. In contrast, hard coatings with high tungsten carbide content were more resistant to wear. We successfully identified a WS2 tribolayer at the sliding interface, which peeled off as ultrathin flakes and attached to AFM tip. Nanoscale tribological behavior of WSC coatings replicates deviation of Amonton's law observed in macroscale testing and strongly suggests that the tribolayer is formed almost immediately after the start of sliding.

Shape-dependent adhesion and friction of Au nanoparticles probed with atomic force microscopy

The relation between surface structure and friction and adhesion is a long-standing question in tribology. Tuning the surface structure of the exposed facets of metal nanoparticles is enabled by shape control. We investigated the effect of the shape of Au nanoparticles on friction and adhesion. Two nanoparticle systems, cubic nanoparticles with a low-index (100) surface and hexoctahedral nanoparticles with a high-index (321) surface, were used as model nanoparticle surfaces. Atomic force microscopy was used to probe the nanoscale friction and adhesion on the nanoparticle surface. Before removing the capping layers, the friction results include contributions from both the geometric factor and the presence of capping layers. After removing the capping layers, we can see the exclusive effect of the surface atomic structure while the geometric effect is maintained. We found that after removing the capping layer, the cubic Au nanoparticles exhibited higher adhesion and friction, compared with cubes capped with layers covering 25% and 70%, respectively. On the other hand, the adhesion and friction of hexoctahedral Au nanoparticles decreased after removing the capping layers, compared with nanoparticles with capping layers. The difference in adhesion and friction forces between the bare Au surfaces and Au nanoparticles with capping layers cannot be explained by geometric factors, such as the slope of the nanoparticle surfaces. The higher adhesion and friction forces on cubic nanoparticles after removing the capping layers is associated with the atomic structure of (100) and (321) (i.e., the flat (100) surfaces of the cubic nanoparticles have a larger contact area, compared with the rough (321) surfaces of the hexoctahedral nanoparticles). This study implies an intrinsic relation between atomic structure and nanomechanical properties, with potential applications for controlling nanoscale friction and adhesion via colloid chemistry.