Coordination sphere flexibility of active-site models for Fe-only hydrogenase: studies in intra- and intermolecular diatomic ligand exchange

Ligand Displacement Reaction Paths in a Diiron Hydrogenase Active Site Model Complex

The mechanism and energetics of CO, 1-hexene, and 1-hexyne substitution from the complexes (SBenz)2 [Fe2 (CO)6 ] (SBenz=SCH2 Ph) (1-CO), (SBenz)2 [Fe2 (CO)5 (η(2) -1-hexene)] (1-(η(2) -1-hexene)), and (SBenz)2 [Fe2 (CO)5 (η(2) -1-hexyne)] (1-(η(2) -1-hexyne)) were studied by using time-resolved infrared spectroscopy. Exchange of both CO and 1-hexyne by P(OEt)3 and pyridine, respectively, proceeds by a bimolecular mechanism. As similar activation enthalpies are obtained for both reactions, the rate-determining step in both cases is assumed to be the rotation of the Fe(CO)2 L (L=CO or 1-hexyne) unit to accommodate the incoming ligand. The kinetic profile for the displacement of 1-hexene is quite different than that for the alkyne and, in this case, both reaction channels, that is, dissociative (SN 1) and associative (SN 2), were found to be competitive. Because DFT calculations predict similar binding enthalpies of alkene and alkyne to the iron center, the results indicate that the bimolecular pathway in the case of the alkyne is lower in free energy than that of the alkene. In complexes of this type, subtle changes in the departing ligand characteristics and the nature of the mercapto bridge can influence the exchange mechanism, such that more than one reaction pathway is available for ligand substitution. The difference between this and the analogous study of (μ-pdt)[Fe(CO)3 ]2 (pdt=S(CH2 )3 S) underscores the unique characteristics of a three-atom S-S linker in the active site of diiron hydrogenases.

Synthesis of Diiron(I) Dithiolato Carbonyl Complexes

Virtually all organosulfur compounds react with Fe(0) carbonyls to give the title complexes. These reactions are reviewed in light of major advances over the past few decades, spurred by interest in Fe2(μ-SR)2(CO)x centers at the active sites of the [FeFe]-hydrogenase enzymes. The most useful synthetic route to Fe2(μ-SR)2(CO)6 involves the reaction of thiols with Fe2(CO)9 and Fe3(CO)12. Such reactions can proceed via mono-, di-, and triiron intermediates. The reactivity of Fe(0) carbonyls toward thiols is highly chemoselective, and the resulting dithiolato complexes are fairly rugged. Thus, many complexes tolerate further synthetic elaboration directed at the organic substituents. A second major route involves alkylation of Fe2(μ-S2)(CO)6, Fe2(μ-SH)2(CO)6, and Li2Fe2(μ-S)2(CO)6. This approach is especially useful for azadithiolates Fe2[(μ-SCH2)2NR](CO)6. Elaborate complexes arise via addition of the FeSH group to electrophilic alkenes, alkynes, and carbonyls. Although the first example of Fe2(μ-SR)2(CO)6 was prepared from ferrous reagents, ferrous compounds are infrequently used, although the Fe(II)(SR)2 + Fe(0) condensation reaction is promising. Almost invariably low-yielding, the reaction of Fe3(CO)12, S8, and a variety of unsaturated substrates results in C-H activation, affording otherwise inaccessible derivatives. Thiones and related C═S-containing reagents are highly reactive toward Fe(0), often giving complexes derived from substituted methanedithiolates and C-H activation.

Effect of Bridgehead Steric Bulk on the Intramolecular C-H Heterolysis of [FeFe]-Hydrogenase Active Site Models Containing a P2N2 Pendant Amine Ligand

A series of pendant amine-containing [FeFe]-hydrogenase models, [X(CH2S-μ)2{Fe(CO)3}{Fe(CO)(P2(Ph)N2(Bn))}] (1H, X = CH2; 2Me, C(CH3)2; 3Et, C(CH2CH3)2; and P2(Ph)N2(Bn) = 1,5-dibenzyl-3,7-diphenyl-1,5-diaza-3,7-diphosphacyclooctane) with different groups at the bridgehead carbon of the S-to-S linker were synthesized. The oxidations of these complexes as well as the reverse reduction reaction were studied by cyclic voltammetry and in situ IR spectroscopy. Regardless of the bridgehead steric bulk, all three complexes demonstrate intramolecular iron-mediated C(sp(3))-H bond heterolytic cleavage with the assistance of the pendant amine base within the chelating diphosphine ligand in the two-electron oxidation process. X-ray crystallographic analysis shows that the doubly oxidized products, [1'H](+), [2'Me](+), and [3'Et](+), all have a rigid FeSC three-membered ring at the open apical site of the rotated iron center. The most noticeable difference in structures of the oxidized complexes is that the single CO ligand of the rotated Fe(P2(Ph)N2(Bn))(CO) unit in [1'H](+) and [2'Me](+) is found below the Fe···Fe vector, while in [3'Et](+) an unusually rotated Fe(P2(Ph)N2(Bn))(CO) moiety positions one of the P donors within the bidentate ligand under the Fe···Fe vector. The starting Fe(I)Fe(I) complexes can be recovered from their corresponding doubly oxidized complexes by reduction in the presence of Brönsted acid.

Biosynthesis of the [FeFe] Hydrogenase H Cluster: A Central Role for the Radical SAM Enzyme HydG

Hydrogenase enzymes catalyze the rapid and reversible interconversion of H2 with protons and electrons. The active site of the [FeFe] hydrogenase is the H cluster, which consists of a [4Fe-4S]H subcluster linked to an organometallic [2Fe]H subcluster. Understanding the biosynthesis and catalytic mechanism of this structurally unusual active site will aid in the development of synthetic and biological hydrogenase catalysts for applications in solar fuel generation. The [2Fe]H subcluster is synthesized and inserted by three maturase enzymes-HydE, HydF, and HydG-in a complex process that involves inorganic, organometallic, and organic radical chemistry. HydG is a member of the radical S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM) family of enzymes and is thought to play a prominent role in [2Fe]H subcluster biosynthesis by converting inorganic Fe(2+), l-cysteine (Cys), and l-tyrosine (Tyr) into an organometallic [(Cys)Fe(CO)2(CN)](-) intermediate that is eventually incorporated into the [2Fe]H subcluster. In this Forum Article, the mechanism of [2Fe]H subcluster biosynthesis is discussed with a focus on how this key [(Cys)Fe(CO)2(CN)](-) species is formed. Particular attention is given to the initial metallocluster composition of HydG, the modes of substrate binding (Fe(2+), Cys, Tyr, and SAM), the mechanism of SAM-mediated Tyr cleavage to CO and CN(-), and the identification of the final organometallic products of the reaction.

Synthesis, characterization, and H/D exchange of μ-hydride-containing [FeFe]-hydrogenase subsite models formed by protonation reactions of (μ-TDT)Fe2(CO)4(PMe3)2 (TDT = SCH2SCH2S) with protic acids

The first TDT ligand-containing μ-hydride models of [FeFe]-hydrogenases (2–7) have been prepared and the H/D exchange reactions of 7 with deuterium reagents such as D₂, D₂O, and DCl are studied.

A sterically stabilized FeI–FeI semi-rotated conformation of [FeFe] hydrogenase subsite model

Semi-rotated state – As the first example so far a [Fe^IFe^I] H₂ase model complex with a bulky silicon-containing dithiolate bridge is reported showing a semi-rotated geometry without the need of stabilization via agostic interactions.

Steric effect of the dithiolato linker on the reduction mechanism of [Fe2(CO)6{μ-(XCH2)2CRR′}] hydrogenase models (X = S, Se)

Investigations of the electrochemical properties of [Fe₂(CO)₆{μ-(XCH₂)₂CRR′}] (X = S, Se; R or R′ = H or Me) showed that the complex with the bulkiest CMe₂moiety undergoes reduction with potential inversion.

Hydrogen generation: aromatic dithiolate-bridged metal carbonyl complexes as hydrogenase catalytic site models

The design, syntheses and characteristics of metal carbonyl complexes with aromatic dithiolate linkers reported as bioinspired hydrogenase catalytic site models are described and reviewed. Among these the complexes capable of hydrogen generation have been discussed in detail. Comparisons have been made with carbonyl complexes having alkyl dithiolates as linkers between metal centers.

Bioinspired Hydrogenase Models: The Mixed-Valence Triiron Complex [Fe3(CO)7(μ-edt)2] and Phosphine Derivatives [Fe3(CO)7-x (PPh3) x (μ-edt)2] (x = 1, 2) and [Fe3(CO)5(κ2-diphosphine)(μ-edt)2] as Proton Reduction Catalysts

The mixed-valence triiron complexes [Fe3(CO)7-x (PPh3) x (μ-edt)2] (x = 0-2; edt = SCH2CH2S) and [Fe3(CO)5(κ2-diphosphine)(μ-edt)2] (diphosphine = dppv, dppe, dppb, dppn) have been prepared and structurally characterized. All adopt an anti arrangement of the dithiolate bridges, and PPh3 substitution occurs at the apical positions of the outer iron atoms, while the diphosphine complexes exist only in the dibasal form in both the solid state and solution. The carbonyl on the central iron atom is semibridging, and this leads to a rotated structure between the bridged diiron center. IR studies reveal that all complexes are inert to protonation by HBF4·Et2O, but addition of acid to the pentacarbonyl complexes results in one-electron oxidation to yield the moderately stable cations [Fe3(CO)5(PPh3)2(μ-edt)2]+ and [Fe3(CO)5(κ2-diphosphine)(μ-edt)2]+, species which also result upon oxidation by [Cp2Fe][PF6]. The electrochemistry of the formally Fe(I)-Fe(II)-Fe(I) complexes has been investigated. Each undergoes a quasi-reversible oxidation, the potential of which is sensitive to phosphine substitution, generally occurring between 0.15 and 0.50 V, although [Fe3(CO)5(PPh3)2(μ-edt)2] is oxidized at -0.05 V. Reduction of all complexes is irreversible and is again sensitive to phosphine substitution, varying between -1.47 V for [Fe3(CO)7(μ-edt)2] and around -1.7 V for phosphine-substituted complexes. In their one-electron-reduced states, all complexes are catalysts for the reduction of protons to hydrogen, the catalytic overpotential being increased upon successive phosphine substitution. In comparison to the diiron complex [Fe2(CO)6(μ-edt)], [Fe3(CO)7(μ-edt)2] catalyzes proton reduction at 0.36 V less negative potentials. Electronic structure calculations have been carried out in order to fully elucidate the nature of the oxidation and reduction processes. In all complexes, the HOMO comprises an iron-iron bonding orbital localized between the two iron atoms not ligated by the semibridging carbonyl, while the LUMO is highly delocalized in nature and is antibonding between both pairs of iron atoms but also contains an antibonding dithiolate interaction.

Diiron hexacarbonyl complexes as potential CO-RMs: CO-releasing initiated by a substitution reaction with cysteamine and structural correlation to the bridging linkage

Substitution-initiated CO-releasing rate of diiron hexacarbonyl complexes are highly dependent on their bridging linkages and the complexes of the “open” form release CO much faster than those of the “close” form.

Multi-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy. 1. X-ray absorption near-edge structure analysis of a biomimetic model of FeFe-hydrogenase

In this work, we demonstrate the potential of multi-edge X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) analysis in completely defining the ground state electronic structure of a prototypical biomimetic complex of the [2Fe]-subcluster of the catalytic H-cluster of FeFe-hydrogenase. The spectral features at the ionization thresholds for Fe, S, C, and O 1s (K-edge) and Fe 2p (L-edge) core electrons were considered simultaneously to obtain the atomic compositions of the unoccupied frontier molecular orbitals. A systematic error analysis was carried out at the most informative S K-edge for spectra collected by multiple detection methods, at various data collection temperatures, and different sample preparation protocols. As expected for the difference in bonding between bridging and terminal Fe-S(thiolate) coordination, the Fe-S bond is more covalent in the [2Fe]-biomimetic complex with formally iron(I) centers (36 ± 2% S character per Fe-S bond) than in the previously described [2Fe-2S] clusters (25 ± 3% S character per Fe-S bond) with formally iron(III) centers. An electron hole-based analysis of the pre-edge features at Fe K-, Fe L-, and S K-edges experimentally defines the composition of the first three frontier unoccupied molecular orbitals to contain 4% Fe 4p, 44% Fe 3d, and 24% S 3p contributions per electron hole, respectively. The complementary CO ligand contribution thus can be defined as 28% per electron hole. These experimental orbital covalency values are important in rationalizing redox properties, electrophilicity of the metals, or nucleophilicity of the ligands, and critically evaluating the absolute accuracy of electronic structure calculations.

Terminal vs bridging hydrides of diiron dithiolates: protonation of Fe2(dithiolate)(CO)2(PMe3)4

This investigation examines the protonation of diiron dithiolates, exploiting the new family of exceptionally electron-rich complexes Fe(2)(xdt)(CO)(2)(PMe(3))(4), where xdt is edt (ethanedithiolate, 1), pdt (propanedithiolate, 2), and adt (2-aza-1,3-propanedithiolate, 3), prepared by the photochemical substitution of the corresponding hexacarbonyls. Compounds 1-3 oxidize near -950 mV vs Fc(+/0). Crystallographic analyses confirm that 1 and 2 adopt C(2)-symmetric structures (Fe-Fe = 2.616 and 2.625 Å, respectively). Low-temperature protonation of 1 afforded exclusively [μ-H1](+), establishing the non-intermediacy of the terminal hydride ([t-H1](+)). At higher temperatures, protonation afforded mainly [t-H1](+). The temperature dependence of the ratio [t-H1](+)/[μ-H1](+) indicates that the barriers for the two protonation pathways differ by ∼4 kcal/mol. Low-temperature (31)P{(1)H} NMR measurements indicate that the protonation of 2 proceeds by an intermediate, proposed to be the S-protonated dithiolate [Fe(2)(Hpdt)(CO)(2)(PMe(3))(4)](+) ([S-H2](+)). This intermediate converts to [t-H2](+) and [μ-H2](+) by first-order and second-order processes, respectively. DFT calculations support transient protonation at sulfur and the proposal that the S-protonated species (e.g., [S-H2](+)) rearranges to the terminal hydride intramolecularly via a low-energy pathway. Protonation of 3 affords exclusively terminal hydrides, regardless of the acid or conditions, to give [t-H3](+), which isomerizes to [t-H3'](+), wherein all PMe(3) ligands are basal.

Catalytic hydrogen evolution from a covalently linked dicobaloxime

A dicobaloxime in which monomeric Co(III) units are linked by an octamethylene bis(glyoxime) catalyzes the reduction of protons from p-toluenesulfonic acid as evidenced by electrocatalytic waves at -0.4 V vs. the saturated calomel electrode (SCE) in acetonitrile solutions. Rates of hydrogen evolution were determined from catalytic current peak heights (k(app) = 1100 ± 70 M(-1) s(-1)). Electrochemical experiments reveal no significant enhancement in the rate of H(2) evolution from that of a monomeric analogue: The experimental rate law is first order in catalyst and acid consistent with previous findings for similar mononuclear cobaloximes. Our work suggests that H(2) evolution likely occurs by protonation of reductively generated Co(II)H rather than homolysis of two Co(III)H units.