Organic chemistry of embalming agents in Pharaonic and Graeco-Roman mummies

Enlightening the past: analytical proof for the use of Pistacia exudates in ancient Egyptian embalming resins

Mastic, the resinous exudate of the evergreen shrub Pistacia lentiscus, is frequently discussed as one of the ingredients used for embalming in ancient Egypt. We show the identification of mastic in ancient Egyptian embalming resins by an unambiguous assignment of the mastic triterpenoid fingerprint consisting of moronic acid, oleanonic acid, isomasticadienonic and masticadienonic acid through the consolidation of NMR and GC/MS analysis. Differences in the observed triterpenoid fingerprints between mummy specimens suggest that more than one plant species served as the triterpenoid resin source. Analysis of the triterpenoid acids of ancient embalming resin samples in the form of their methyl- and trimethylsilyl esters is compared. In addition we show a simple way to differentiate between residues of mastic from its use as incense during embalming or from direct mastic application in the embalming resin.

Effects of myrrh on intra-oral mucosal wounds compared with tetracycline- and chlorhexidine-based mouthwashes

Aim

To evaluate the effect of myrrh compared with chlorhexidine gluconate- and tetracycline-containing mouthwashes on wound healing over time in an animal model.

Methods

A unilateral incision on the right buccal mucosa was made, and the wound was irrigated with myrrh-, chlorhexidine gluconate-, or tetracycline-based mouthwashes at various time intervals. Clinical and histological examination was performed for all the groups.

Results

It was found that the myrrh suspension promotes healing and repair of damaged tissue when used over a short period of time (less than 2 weeks) and in a low-concentration suspension; however, it can have harmful effects if used in excess or over a long period of time.

Conclusion

Further studies will also be required to study these effects and their mechanism of action in detail.

A short review of the anthelmintic role of Mirazid

Mirazid® is a patented preparation from a plant that had been used in folk medicine since ancient Egyptians (Myrrh). It was registered in Egypt for the treatment of schistosomiasis and fascioliasis. Over 32 independent studies for efficacy of Mirazid had been reviewed and their results analyzed. The majority of these studies reported higher than 90% cure rates, that even higher in mixed than single trematodal infections in humans and in farm animals. Only two groups of investigators reported lower cure rates as they used lower doses and estimated cure rates at a shorter period from treatment than recommended by innovators.

Long-term room temperature preservation of corpse soft tissue: an approach for tissue sample storage

Background

Disaster victim identification (DVI) represents one of the most difficult challenges in forensic sciences, and subsequent DNA typing is essential. Collected samples for DNA-based human identification are usually stored at low temperature to halt the degradation processes of human remains. We have developed a simple and reliable procedure for soft tissue storage and preservation for DNA extraction. It ensures high quality DNA suitable for PCR-based DNA typing after at least 1 year of room temperature storage.

Methods

Fragments of human psoas muscle were exposed to three different environmental conditions for diverse time periods at room temperature. Storage conditions included: (a) a preserving medium consisting of solid sodium chloride (salt), (b) no additional substances and (c) garden soil. DNA was extracted with proteinase K/SDS followed by organic solvent treatment and concentration by centrifugal filter devices. Quantification was carried out by real-time PCR using commercial kits. Short tandem repeat (STR) typing profiles were analysed with 'expert software'.

Results

DNA quantities recovered from samples stored in salt were similar up to the complete storage time and underscored the effectiveness of the preservation method. It was possible to reliably and accurately type different genetic systems including autosomal STRs and mitochondrial and Y-chromosome haplogroups. Autosomal STR typing quality was evaluated by expert software, denoting high quality profiles from DNA samples obtained from corpse tissue stored in salt for up to 365 days.

Conclusions

The procedure proposed herein is a cost efficient alternative for storage of human remains in challenging environmental areas, such as mass disaster locations, mass graves and exhumations. This technique should be considered as an additional method for sample storage when preservation of DNA integrity is required for PCR-based DNA typing.

Aromatic resin characterisation by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

An analytical procedure based on alkaline hydrolysis, solvent extraction and trimethyl-silylation followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis was used to study the chemical composition of benzoe and storax resins, water-insoluble exudates of trees of the Styrax and Liquidambar genus. They are chemically characterised by having aromatic acids, alcohols and esters as their main components and are thus known as aromatic and/or balsamic resins. This analytical procedure allowed us to characterise the main components of the two resins and, even though cinnamic acid is the main component of both the resins, the presence of other characteristic aromatic compounds and triterpenes permitted us to distinguish between the two materials. All the compounds identified in benzoe resin were detected in an archaeological organic residue from an Egyptian ceramic censer (fifth to seventh centuries a.d.), thus proving that this resin was used as one of the components of the mixture of organic materials burned as incense. These results provide the first chemical evidence of the presence of benzoe resin in an archaeological material from Mediterranean area.

Elucidation of molecular and elementary composition of organic and inorganic substances involved in 19th century wax sculptures using an integrated analytical approach

Wax sculptures contain several materials from both organic and inorganic nature. These works of art are particularly fragile. Determining their chemical composition is thus of prime importance for their preservation. The identification of the recipes of waxy pastes used through time also provides valuable information in the field of art history. The aim of the present research was to develop a convenient analytical strategy, as non-invasive as possible, that allows to identify the wide range of materials involved in wax sculptures. A multi-step analytical methodology, based on the use of complementary techniques, either non- or micro-destructive, was elaborated. X-ray fluorescence and micro-Raman spectroscopy were used in a non-invasive way to identify inorganic pigments, opacifiers and extenders. The combination of structural and separative techniques, namely infrared spectroscopy, direct inlet electron ionisation mass spectrometry and high temperature gas chromatography, was shown to be appropriate for unravelling the precise composition of the organic substances. A micro-chemical test was also performed for the detection of starch. From this study it has been possible to elucidate the composition of the waxy pastes used by three different sculptors at the end of the 19th century. Complex and elaborated recipes, in which a large range of natural substances were combined, were highlighted.

Combined FT–Raman spectroscopic and mass spectrometric study of ancient Egyptian sarcophagal fragments

The application of combined Raman spectroscopic and GC-MS analytical techniques for the characterisation of organic varnish residues from Egyptian Dynastic funerary sarcophagal and cartonnage fragments from the Graeco-Roman period, ca. 2200 BP, is described. The nondestructive use of Raman spectroscopy was initially employed to derive information about the specific location of organic material on the specimens, which were then targeted in specific areas using minimal sampling for GC-MS analysis. In the case of the sarcophagal fragment, a degraded yellow-brown surface treatment was identified as a Pistacia spp. resin; this provides additional evidence for the use of this resin, which has previously been identified in Canaanite transport amphorae, varnishes and "incense" bowls in an Egyptian Late Bronze Age archaeological context. The cartonnage fragment also contained an organic coating for which the Raman spectrum indicated a degradation that was too severe to facilitate identification, but the GC-MS data revealed that it was composed of a complex mixture of fatty acid residues. The combined use of GC-MS and Raman spectroscopy for the characterisation of organic materials in an archaeological context is advocated for minimisation of sampling and restriction to specifically identified targets for museum archival specimens.

Chemical study of triterpenoid resinous materials in archaeological findings by means of direct exposure electron ionisation mass spectrometry and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

A systematic study of standard triterpenes (alpha-amyrine, oleanolic acid, betulin, lupeol, betulinic acid and lupenone) and of raw resinous materials (frankincense resin, mastic resin and birch bark pitch) was performed using direct exposure electron ionisation mass spectrometry (DE-MS) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). DE-MS provides a mass spectral fingerprint of organic materials in a few minutes which highlights the compounds that are the main components in the sample. The application of principal component analysis (PCA) on DE-MS data in the mass ranges m/z 181-260 and m/z 331-500, corresponding to the fragmentation of triterpenoid molecules, enabled us to distinguish between different triterpenoid materials such as mastic resin, frankincense resin and birch bark pitch, and to graphically plot the resinous substances in three separate clusters, retaining 89% of the total variance. GC/MS analysis of the same materials has permitted us to elucidate in detail the molecular composition and to identify minor components and species that act as markers of the degradation undergone by the materials. The paper also reports the results for the organic residues contained in an Egyptian censer (5th-7th century AD) which was recovered in the excavation of the Necropolis of Antinoe (Egypt), and for the hafting material found on a Palaeolithic tool recovered at the site of Campitello (Arezzo, Tuscany), dating back to the Mid-Pleistocene period. Although DE-MS was found to be a fast analytical tool, it failed to give any information on the presence of less abundant compounds when applied to mixtures of different materials: only mastic resin was found in the residues from the Roman censer, whereas GC/MS analysis identified the presence of a vegetable oil from Brassicaceae seeds and Pinaceae resin. Birch bark pitch as a pure material was identified in the sample from the Palaeolithic flint flake using both procedures.

A review of current applications of mass spectrometry for biomarker/molecular tracer elucidation

Mass spectrometry, especially coupled with gas chromatography or tandem, is the analytical method of choice in elucidation of biomarker compounds present in organic mixtures extracted from geological, environmental, or biological samples. This review describes the biomarker concept; i.e., the precursor natural products to the geological/environmental derivatives, and their application as tracers in the geosphere and ambient environment. The mass spectrometric methods currently utilized for such analyses are reviewed, and typical examples of applications are described with a general key to the literature.

Exploration of anthropological specimens by GC-MS and chemometrics

Anthropological specimens combine a variety of unfavorable characteristics, rendering their evaluation an analytical challenge. Their remarkable status is primarily based on two characteristics: (i) these very rare samples of human origin are testimonies of human history and are, therefore, available only in minute amounts for analytical purposes, and (ii) the analysis of these samples is extremely limited by the decomposition of molecules, which are easily detected in living organisms, such as nucleic acids and proteins, but are subject to rapid post-mortem decay. In this article, we review the methods and results of archaeometry, emphasizing the role of MS combined with chemometrics. Focusing on experimental results for fatty acid profiles, specimens from mummies from different civilizations were compared. Considering in particular the Tyrolean Iceman, the application of chemometric methods to GC-MS data recovers essential information about the preservation and the storage conditions of mummies.

Complex organic chemical balms of Pharaonic animal mummies

Millions of votive mummies of mammals, birds and reptiles were produced throughout ancient Egypt, with their popularity increasing during the reign of Amenhotep III (1400 bc) and thereafter. The scale of production has been taken to indicate that relatively little care and expense was involved in their preparation compared with human mummies. The accepted view is that animals were merely wrapped in coarse linen bandages and/or dipped in 'resin' before death. However, as with human mummification there was a range of qualities of treatments, and visual inspection of animal mummies suggests that the procedures used were often as complex as those used in humans (for example, evisceration and elaborate bandaging). Moreover, the ancient Egyptians treated animals with great respect, regarding them both as domestic pets and representatives of the gods; for example, the cat symbolized the goddess Bastet; the hawk, Horus; the ibis, Thoth, and so on. We report here the results of chemical investigations of tissues and wrappings from Pharaonic cat, hawk and ibis mummies using gas chromatography, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The analyses reveal the presence of highly complex mixtures of n-alkyl and cyclic biomarker components characteristic of fats, oils, beeswax, sugar gum, petroleum bitumen, and coniferous, Pistacia and possibly cedar resins. The mixture of balms is of comparable complexity to those used to mummify humans from the same period.

Characterisation of embalming materials of a mummy of the Ptolemaic era. Comparison with balms from mummies of different eras

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry has been used to determine the nature of organic materials used in mummification balms. A comparative analysis of samples taken from Egyptian mummies is developed. The results are given in two parts. First, it is shown that the chemical composition of the balm is practically independent of the part of the mummy from which it is taken. This study was done on a Ptolemaic mummy (circa 100 BC from the Guimet Museum in Lyon). Fats, beeswax, and diterpenic resins were the main components: they were found everywhere. Castor oil was also very often detected (in half of the samples). This particular fat is present in the balm inside the thorax but not in the skull. Moreover it is shown that a vegetable tannin was employed. Components indicative of vegetable tannin input (gallic acid and inositols) were found in seven samples out of eighteen, particularly close to the body and on the canopic pack of the heart. Secondly, some conclusions from a comparative study of the composition of balms from mummies of various social levels as well as of different Egyptian periods are reported. It is shown that beeswax was used as from very early times (XVIIIth dynasty). The mixture of beeswax, fats, and diterpenoid resins would appear to be more recent. The balms of three mummies dating from more recent Egyptian periods (XIXth to XXVth dynasty) were analysed. No evidence of a resin, gum-resin, or plant gum could be found. Some mummies would appear to have been embalmed with fats or beeswax. Finally, the entrails canopic pack said to belong to Ramses II undoubtedly shows an embalming process with a triterpenic resin of the mastic type. The adopted analytical methodology enabled us to achieve simultaneous detection of four components of the balm of the Ptolemaic mummy. Analysis of the other five mummies revealed far less complex chemical compositions for the balms. This may be an indication of different embalming processes, although we should bear in mind the question of organic matter preservation through the ages.

Borate in mummification salts and bones from Pharaonic Egypt

Mummification processes in Pharaonic Egypt were successful using sodium salts. Quite frequently sodium concentrations in mummified bones ranged from 300 to 4000 micromol/g. In the search for an effective inorganic conservation compound our choice fell on boric acid. The possible presence of borate in mummification salts used in Pharaonic Egypt was of special interest both historically and biochemically. In two salt samples, one from the embalming material of Tutankhamen (18th dynasty, 1336-1327 BC) and the second from Deir el-Bahari (25th dynasty, 700-600 BC) borate was found, amounting to 2.1+/-0.2 and 3.9+/-0.1 micromol/g, respectively. In five of the examined bone fragments from the Junker excavation at Giza (Old Kingdom) similar borate concentrations i.e., 1.2 micromol borate/g bone were seen. It must be emphasized that the usual borate content of contemporary autopsy is far below the detection limit. The elevated borate content in both mummification salt and ancient bone samples support the suggestion that borate-containing salt had been used. There is a striking correlation of both borate concentration and alkaline phosphatase activity. When both sodium salts and borate were essentially absent no activity at all was detectable. With increasing borate concentrations the enzyme activity rises significantly. Attributable to the distinct biochemistry of the tetrahydroxyborate anion it was of interest whether or not borate may stabilize alkaline phosphatase, an important and richly abundant bone enzyme. This enzyme was chosen, as it is known to survive more than 4000 years of mummification. In the presence of borate oligomeric species of this zinc-magnesium-glycoprotein at 400,000 Da became detectable. Attributable to this borate-dependent stabilization of the enzyme molecule a significant temperature resistant increase of the enzymic activity was measured in the presence of up to 2.5 mM borate.

Chemistry of archaeological animal fats

Animal fats are preserved at archaeological sites in association with unglazed pottery, human and animal remains, and other deposits or hoards. High-temperature gas chromatography (HT-GC) and combined HT-GC/mass spectrometry (HT-GC/MS) has confirmed the presence of animal fats in lipid extracts of artifacts. Degradation products and pathways have been discerned through the analyses of archaeological finds and the products of laboratory and field-based decay experiments. The origins of preserved fats have been determined through detailed compositional analysis of their component fatty acids by GC, by GC/MS of dimethyl disulfide derivatives of monoenoic components, and by GC-combustion-isotope ratio-MS (GC-C-IRMS), to derive diagenetically robust delta(13)C values. Regiospecific analysis of intact triacylglycerols by high-performance liquid chromatography/MS (HPLC/MS), with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization, provides a further criterion for establishing the origin of fats. Preparative GC has been employed to isolate individual fatty acids from archaeological pottery in sufficient amounts for (14)C dating.