Structural basis of ligand recognition in 5-HT3 receptors

Varenicline Interactions at the 5-HT3 Receptor Ligand Binding Site are Revealed by 5-HTBP

Cys-loop receptors are the site of action of many therapeutic drugs. One of these is the smoking cessation agent varenicline, which has its major therapeutic effects at nicotinic acetylcholine (nACh) receptors but also acts at 5-HT3 receptors. Here, we report the X-ray crystal structure of the 5-HT binding protein (5-HTBP) in complex with varenicline, and test the predicted interactions by probing the potency of varenicline in a range of mutant 5-HT3 receptors expressed in HEK293 cells and Xenopus oocytes. The structure reveals a range of interactions between varenicline and 5-HTBP. We identified residues within 5 Å of varenicline and substituted the equivalent residues in the 5-HT3 receptor with Ala or a residue with similar chemical properties. Functional characterization of these mutant 5-HT3 receptors, using a fluorescent membrane potential dye in HEK cells and voltage clamp in oocytes, supports interactions between varenicline and the receptor that are similar to those in 5-HTBP. The structure also revealed C-loop closure that was less than in the 5-HT-bound 5-HTBP, and hydrogen bonding between varenicline and the complementary face of the binding pocket via a water molecule, which are characteristics consistent with partial agonist behavior of varenicline in the 5-HT3 receptor. Together, these data reveal detailed insights into the molecular interaction of varenicline in the 5-HT3 receptor.

Development of Plate Reader and On-Line Microfluidic Screening to Identify Ligands of the 5-Hydroxytryptamine Binding Protein in Venoms

The 5-HT3 receptor is a ligand-gated ion channel, which is expressed in the nervous system. Its antagonists are used clinically for treatment of postoperative- and radiotherapy-induced emesis and irritable bowel syndrome. In order to better understand the structure and function of the 5-HT3 receptor, and to allow for compound screening at this receptor, recently a serotonin binding protein (5HTBP) was engineered with the Acetylcholine Binding Protein as template. In this study, a fluorescence enhancement assay for 5HTBP ligands was developed in plate-reader format and subsequently used in an on-line microfluidic format. Both assay types were validated using an existing radioligand binding assay. The on-line microfluidic assay was coupled to HPLC via a post-column split which allowed parallel coupling to a mass spectrometer to collect MS data. This high-resolution screening (HRS) system is well suitable for compound mixture analysis. As a proof of principle, the venoms of Dendroapsis polylepis, Pseudonaja affinis and Pseudonaja inframacula snakes were screened and the accurate masses of the found bioactives were established. To demonstrate the subsequent workflow towards structural identification of bioactive proteins and peptides, the partial amino acid sequence of one of the bioactives from the Pseudonaja affinis venom was determined using a bottom-up proteomics approach.

αS-conotoxin GVIIIB potently and selectively blocks α9α10 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

Although acetylcholine is widely utilized in vertebrate nervous systems, nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), including the α9α10 subtype, also are expressed in a wide variety of non-neuronal cells. These cell types include cochlear hair cells, adrenal chromaffin cells and immune cells. α9α10 nAChRs present in these cells may respectively play roles in protection from noise-induced hearing loss, response to stress and neuroprotection. Despite these critical functions, there are few available selective ligands to confirm mechanistic hypothesis regarding the role of α9α10 nAChRs. Conus, has been a rich source of ligands for receptors and ion channels. Here, we identified Conus geographus venom as a lead source for a novel α9α10 antagonist. The active component was isolated and the encoding gene cloned. The peptide signal sequence and cysteine arrangement had the signature of the σ-conotoxin superfamily. Previously isolated σ-conotoxin GVIIIA, also from Conus geographus, targets the 5-HT3 receptor. In contrast, αS-GVIIIB blocked the α9α10 nAChR with an IC50 of 9.8 nM, yet was inactive at the 5-HT3 receptor. Pharmacological characterization of αS-GVIIIB shows that it is over 100-fold selective for the α9α10 nAChR compared to other nAChR subtypes. Thus, the S-superfamily represents a novel conotoxin scaffold for flexibly targeting a variety of receptor subtypes. Functional competition studies utilized distinct off-rate kinetics of conotoxins to identify the α10/α9 nAChR interface as the site of αS-GVIIIB binding; this adds to the importance of the (+) face of the α10 rather than the (+) face of the α9 nAChR subunit as critical to binding of α9α10-targeted conotoxins.

Unraveling mechanisms underlying partial agonism in 5-HT3A receptors

Partial agonists have emerged as attractive therapeutic molecules. 2-Me-5HT and tryptamine have been defined as partial agonists of 5-HT3 receptors on the basis of macroscopic measurements. Because several mechanisms may limit maximal responses, we took advantage of the high-conductance form of the mouse serotonin type 3A (5-HT3A) receptor to understand their molecular actions. Individual 5-HT-bound receptors activate in long episodes of high open probability, consisting of groups of openings in quick succession. The activation pattern is similar for 2-Me-5HT only at very low concentrations since profound channel blockade takes place within the activating concentration range. In contrast, activation episodes are significantly briefer in the presence of tryptamine. Generation of a full activation scheme reveals that the fully occupied receptor overcomes transitions to closed preopen states (primed states) before opening. Reduced priming explains the partial agonism of tryptamine. In contrast, 2-Me-5HT is not a genuine partial agonist since priming is not dramatically affected and its low apparent efficacy is mainly due to channel blockade. The analysis also shows that the first priming step is the rate-limiting step and partial agonists require an increased number of priming steps for activation. Molecular docking suggests that interactions are similar for 5-HT and 2-Me-5HT but slightly different for tryptamine. Our study contributes to understanding 5-HT3A receptor activation, extends the novel concept of partial agonism within the Cys-loop family, reveals novel aspects of partial agonism, and unmasks molecular actions of classically defined partial agonists. Unraveling mechanisms underlying partial responses has implications in the design of therapeutic compounds.

Characterizing new fluorescent tools for studying 5-HT₃ receptor pharmacology

The pharmacological characterization of ligands depends upon the ability to accurately measure their binding properties. Fluorescence provides an alternative to more traditional approaches such as radioligand binding. Here we describe the binding and spectroscopic properties of eight fluorescent 5-HT3 receptor ligands. These were tested on purified receptors, expressed receptors on live cells, or in vivo. All compounds had nanomolar affinities with fluorescent properties extending from blue to near infra-red emission. A fluorescein-derivative had the highest affinity as measured by fluorescence polarization (FP; 1.14 nM), flow cytometry (FC; 3.23 nM) and radioligand binding (RB; 1.90 nM). Competition binding with unlabeled 5-HT3 receptor agonists (5-HT, mCPBG, quipazine) and antagonists (granisetron, palonosetron, tropisetron) yielded similar affinities in all three assays. When cysteine substitutions were introduced into the 5-HT3 receptor binding site the same changes in binding affinity were seen for both granisetron and the fluorescein-derivative, suggesting that they both adopt orientations that are consistent with co-crystal structures of granisetron with a homologous protein (5HTBP). As expected, in vivo live imaging in anaesthetized mice revealed staining in the abdominal cavity in intestines, but also in salivary glands. The unexpected presence of 5-HT3 receptors in mouse salivary glands was confirmed by Western blots. Overall, these results demonstrate the wide utility of our new high-affinity fluorescently-labeled 5-HT3 receptor probes, ranging from in vitro receptor pharmacology, including FC and FP ligand competition, to live imaging of 5-HT3 expressing tissues.

The evolution of pentameric ligand-gated ion-channels and the changing family of anthelmintic drug targets

SUMMARY Pentameric ligand-gated ion-channels rapidly transduce synaptic neurotransmitter signals to an electrical response in post-synaptic neuronal or muscle cells and control the neuromusculature of a majority of multicellular animals. A wide range of pharmaceuticals target these receptors including ethanol, nicotine, anti-depressants and other mood regulating drugs, compounds that control pain and mobility and are targeted by a majority of anthelmintic drugs used to control parasitic infection of humans and livestock. Major advances have been made in recent years to our understanding of the structure, function, activity and the profile of compounds that can activate specific receptors. It is becoming clear that these anthelmintic drug targets are not fixed, but differ in significant details from one nematode species to another. Here we review what is known about the evolution of the pentameric ligand-gated ion-channels, paying particular attention to the nematodes, how we can infer the origins of such receptors and understand the factors that determine how they change both over time and from one species to another. Using this knowledge provides a biological framework in which to understand these important drug targets and avenues to identify new receptors and aid the search for new anthelmintic drugs.

The antimalarial drug proguanil is an antagonist at 5-HT3 receptors

Proguanil is an antimalarial prodrug that is metabolized to 4-chlorophenyl-1-biguanide (CPB) and the active metabolite cycloguanil (CG). These compounds are structurally related to meta-chlorophenyl biguanide (mCPBG), a 5-hydroxytryptamine 3 (5-HT3) receptor agonist. Here we examine the effects of proguanil and its metabolites on the electrophysiology and ligand-binding properties of human 5-HT3A receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes and human embryonic kidney 293 cells, respectively. 5-HT3 receptor responses were reversibly inhibited by proguanil, with an IC50 of 1.81 μM. Competitive antagonism was shown by a lack of voltage-dependence, Schild plot (Kb = 1.70 μM), and radioligand competition (Ki = 2.61 μM) with the 5-HT3 receptor antagonist [(3)H]granisetron. Kinetic measurements (kon = 4.0 × 10(4) M(-1) s(-1) ; koff = 0.23 s(-1)) were consistent with a simple bimolecular reaction scheme with a Kb of 4.35 μM. The metabolites CG and CPB similarly inhibited 5-HT3 receptors as assessed by IC50 (1.48 and 4.36 μM, respectively), Schild plot (Kb = 2.97 and 11.4 μM), and radioligand competition (Ki = 4.89 and 0.41 μM). At higher concentrations, CPB was a partial agonist (EC50 = 14.1 μM; I/Imax = 0.013). These results demonstrate that proguanil competitively inhibits 5-HT3 receptors, with an IC50 that exceeds whole-blood concentrations following its oral administration. They may therefore be responsible for the occasional gastrointestinal side effects, nausea, and vomiting reported following its use. Clinical development of related compounds should therefore consider effects at 5-HT3 receptors as an early indication of possible unwanted gastrointestinal side effects.

The binding characteristics and orientation of a novel radioligand with distinct properties at 5-HT3A and 5-HT3AB receptors

VUF10166 (2-chloro-3-(4-methyl piperazin-1-yl)quinoxaline) is a ligand that binds with high affinity to 5-HT3 receptors. Here we synthesise [(3)H]VUF10166 and characterise its binding properties at 5-HT3A and 5-HT3AB receptors. At 5-HT3A receptors [(3)H]VUF10166 displayed saturable binding with a Kd of 0.18 nM. Kinetic measurements gave monophasic association (6.25 × 10(7) M(-1) min(-1)) and dissociation (0.01 min(-1)) rates that yielded a similar Kd value (0.16 nM). At 5-HT3AB receptors two association (6.15 × 10(-7), 7.23 M(-1) min(-1)) and dissociation (0.024, 0.162 min(-1)) rates were seen, yielding Kd values (0.38 nM and 22 nM) that were consistent with values obtained in saturation (Kd = 0.74 nM) and competition (Ki = 37 nM) binding experiments respectively. At both receptor types, specific binding was inhibited by classical 5-HT3 receptor-selective orthosteric ligands (5-HT, allosetron, d-tubocurarine, granisetron, mCPBG, MDL72222, quipazine), but not by non-competitive antagonists (bilobalide, ginkgolide B, picrotoxin) or competitive ligands of other Cys-loop receptors (ACh, bicuculline, glycine, gabazine). To explore VUF10166 ligand-receptor interactions we used in silico modelling and docking, and tested the predictions using site directed mutagenesis. The data suggest that VUF10166 adopts a similar orientation to 5-HT3 receptor agonists bound in AChBP (varenicline) and 5HTBP (5-HT) crystal structures.

X-ray structure of the mouse serotonin 5-HT3 receptor

Neurotransmitter-gated ion channels of the Cys-loop receptor family mediate fast neurotransmission throughout the nervous system. The molecular processes of neurotransmitter binding, subsequent opening of the ion channel and ion permeation remain poorly understood. Here we present the X-ray structure of a mammalian Cys-loop receptor, the mouse serotonin 5-HT3 receptor, at 3.5 Å resolution. The structure of the proteolysed receptor, made up of two fragments and comprising part of the intracellular domain, was determined in complex with stabilizing nanobodies. The extracellular domain reveals the detailed anatomy of the neurotransmitter binding site capped by a nanobody. The membrane domain delimits an aqueous pore with a 4.6 Å constriction. In the intracellular domain, a bundle of five intracellular helices creates a closed vestibule where lateral portals are obstructed by loops. This 5-HT3 receptor structure, revealing part of the intracellular domain, expands the structural basis for understanding the operating mechanism of mammalian Cys-loop receptors.

Principles of agonist recognition in Cys-loop receptors

Cys-loop receptors are ligand-gated ion channels that are activated by a structurally diverse array of neurotransmitters, including acetylcholine, serotonin, glycine, and GABA. After the term "chemoreceptor" emerged over 100 years ago, there was some wait until affinity labeling, molecular cloning, functional studies, and X-ray crystallography experiments identified the extracellular interface of adjacent subunits as the principal site of agonist binding. The question of how subtle differences at and around agonist-binding sites of different Cys-loop receptors can accommodate transmitters as chemically diverse as glycine and serotonin has been subject to intense research over the last three decades. This review outlines the functional diversity and current structural understanding of agonist-binding sites, including those of invertebrate Cys-loop receptors. Together, this provides a framework to understand the atomic determinants involved in how these valuable therapeutic targets recognize and bind their ligands.

Functional probes of drug-receptor interactions implicated by structural studies: Cys-loop receptors provide a fertile testing ground

Structures of integral membrane receptors provide valuable models for drug–receptor interactions across many important classes of drug targets and have become much more widely available in recent years. However, it remains to be determined to what extent these images are relevant to human receptors in their biological context and how subtle issues such as subtype selectivity can be informed by them. The high precision structural modifications enabled by unnatural amino acid mutagenesis on mammalian receptors expressed in vertebrate cells allow detailed tests of predictions from structural studies. Using the Cys-loop superfamily of ligand-gated ion channels, we show that functional studies lead to detailed binding models that, at times, are significantly at odds with the structural studies on related invertebrate proteins. Importantly, broad variations in binding interactions are seen for very closely related receptor subtypes and for varying drugs at a given binding site. These studies highlight the essential interplay between structural studies and functional studies that can guide efforts to develop new pharmaceuticals.

Association between variants of 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 3C (HTR3C) and chemotherapy-induced symptoms in women receiving adjuvant treatment for breast cancer

Administration of chemotherapy is associated with a wide array of symptoms affecting quality of life. Genetic risk factors for severity of chemotherapy-induced symptoms have not been determined. The present study aimed to explore the associations between polymorphisms in candidate genes and chemotherapy-induced symptoms. Women treated with at least two cycles of adjuvant doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide, with or without paclitaxel for early breast cancer (n = 105) completed the memorial symptom assessment scale and provided blood for genotyping. DNA was extracted from peripheral blood leukocytes and assayed for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in GTP cyclohydrolase 1 (GCH1, rs10483639, rs3783641, and rs8007267), catecholamine-o-methyltransferase (COMT, rs4818), and 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) receptor 3C (HTR3C, rs6766410, and rs6807362). Genotyping of HTR3C revealed a significant association between the presence of rs6766410 and rs6807362 SNPs (K163 and G405 variants) and increased severity of symptoms (p = 0.0001 and p = 0.007, respectively). Multiple regressions revealed that rs6766410 and rs6807362, but not age or stage at diagnosis, predicted severity of symptoms (p = 0.001 and p = 0.006, respectively) and explained 12 % of the variance in each regression model. No association was found between the genetic variants of CGH1 or COMT and symptom score. Our study indicates, for the first time, an association between variants of HTR3C and severity of chemotherapy-induced symptoms. Analyzing these genetic variants may identify patients at increased risk for the development of chemotherapy-induced symptoms and targeting the serotonin pathway may serve as a novel treatment strategy for these patients.

Identifying key amino acid residues that affect α-conotoxin AuIB inhibition of α3β4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

α-Conotoxin AuIB is a selective α3β4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subtype inhibitor. Its analgesic properties are believed to result from it activating GABAB receptors and subsequently inhibiting CaV2.2 voltage-gated calcium channels. The structural determinants that mediate diverging AuIB activity at these targets are unknown. We performed alanine scanning mutagenesis of AuIB and α3β4 nAChR, homology modeling, and molecular dynamics simulations to identify the structural determinants of the AuIB·α3β4 nAChR interaction. Two alanine-substituted AuIB analogues, [P6A]AuIB and [F9A]AuIB, did not inhibit the α3β4 nAChR. NMR and CD spectroscopy studies demonstrated that [F9A]AuIB retains its native globular structure, so its activity loss is probably due to loss of specific toxin-receptor residue pairwise contacts. Compared with AuIB, the concentration-response curve for inhibition of α3β4 by [F9A]AuIB shifted rightward more than 10-fold, and its subtype selectivity profile changed. Homology modeling and molecular dynamics simulations suggest that Phe-9 of AuIB interacts with a two-residue binding pocket on the β4 nAChR subunit. This hypothesis was confirmed by site-directed mutagenesis of the β4-Trp-59 and β4-Lys-61 residues of loop D, which form a putative binding pocket. AuIB analogues with Phe-9 substitutions corroborated the finding of a binding pocket on the β4 subunit and gave further insight into how AuIB Phe-9 interacts with the β4 subunit. In summary, we identified critical residues that mediate interactions between AuIB and its cognate nAChR subtype. These findings might help improve the design of analgesic conopeptides that selectively "avoid" nAChR receptors while targeting receptors involved with nociception.

Importance of recognition loops B and D in the activation of human 5-HT₃ receptors by 5-HT and meta-chlorophenylbiguanide

The 5-HT₃ receptor is a cation selective member of the pentameric Cys-loop ligand-gated ion channels. While five subunits are known to exist, only two receptor subtypes have been significantly characterized: the homomeric receptor consisting of five A subunits and the heteromeric receptor containing both A and B subunits. The agonist recognition and activation of these receptors is orchestrated by six recognition loops three, A-C, on the principal subunit, and three, D-F, on the complementary subunit. In this study we have focused on the B loop of the principal subunit and loop D of the complementary subunit where aligned amino acids differ between the two subunits. A mutational analysis has been carried out using both 5-HT and m-chlorophenylbiguanide (mCPBG) to characterize receptor activation in the mutant receptors using two-electrode voltage clamp in Xenopus oocytes. The results show that the B loop W178I mutation of the 5-HT3A subunit markedly reduces the efficacy of mCPBG in both the homomeric and heteromeric receptors, while activation by 5-HT remains intact. Replacement of the D loop amino acid triplet RQY of the 5-HT3A subunit, with the aligned residues from the 5-HT3B subunit, QEV, converts 5-HT to a weak partial agonist in both the homomer and heteromer, but does not compromise activation by mCPBG. Exchange of the RQY triplet for the 5-HT3B subunit homologue, QEV, increases the Hill coefficient and decreases the EC₅₀ of this mutant when expressed with the wild type 5-HT3A subunit.