Dissections of brain-supplying arteries

Vessel wall imaging for intracranial vascular disease evaluation

Accurate and timely diagnosis of intracranial vasculopathies is important owing to the significant risk of morbidity with delayed and/or incorrect diagnosis both from the disease process and inappropriate therapies. Conventional luminal imaging techniques for analysis of intracranial vasculopathies are limited to evaluation of changes in the vessel lumen. Vessel wall MRI techniques can allow direct characterization of pathologic changes of the vessel wall. These techniques may improve diagnostic accuracy and improve patient outcomes. Extracranial carotid vessel wall imaging has been extensively investigated in patients with atherosclerotic disease and has been shown to accurately assess plaque composition and identify vulnerable plaque characteristics that may predict stroke risk beyond luminal stenosis alone. This review provides a brief history of vessel wall MRI, an overview of the intracranial vessel wall MRI techniques, its applications, and imaging findings of various intracranial vasculopathies pertinent to the neurointerventionalist, neurologist, and neuroradiologist. We searched MEDLINE, PubMed, and Google for English publications containing any of the following terms: 'intracranial vessel wall imaging', 'intracranial vessel wall', and 'intracranial vessel wall MRI'.

Vertebral artery dissection with compelling evidence on duplex ultrasound presenting only with neck pain

Vertebral artery dissection (VAD) is among the most common identifiable etiologies of stroke in young adults and poses a diagnostic challenge due to nonspecific symptoms and substantial variability of imaging results. Here, we present a case of unspecific neck pain as isolated symptom of VAD with unusually compelling evidence on duplex ultrasound. This observation has clinical relevance as the absence of any neurological symptoms in our patient highlights the necessity of considering cervical artery dissection in patients presenting with unspecific symptoms such as neck pain, even if isolated. Furthermore, our image of intramural hematoma on duplex ultrasound has been captured in an unusual, clear and distinct fashion and might therefore be a useful reference image in the clinical assessment of patients with a suspicion of cervical artery dissection.

Cerebrovascular disease

With 16.9 million people who suffered a first-ever stroke in 2010 worldwide, stroke is a very common vascular disease. Epidemiologic studies have played an essential role in assessing this burden and in detecting the risk factors for stroke. Primary prevention of these risk factors, primarily hypertension, smoking, diabetes, and atrial fibrillation, has reduced the incidence in high-income countries. However, stroke remains a major cause of death and disability, and therefore research should be continued. Subarachnoid hemorrhages are less prevalent than strokes but have an even higher risk of death. Similar to stroke, epidemiologic studies identified smoking and hypertension as its most important risk factors, together with excessive alcohol intake. Although rare, arterial dissections, CADASIL, arteriovenous malformations, venous sinus thrombosis, moyamoya disease, and vasculitis can lead to serious symptoms. The burden and risk factors of those rare diseases are more challenging to assess. Whenever possible, they should be recognized in a timely manner for their increased risk of stroke, but most often they are diagnosed only at the time of stroke. Some cerebrovascular abnormalities do not result in immediate symptoms. This subclinical cerebrovascular disease includes silent infarcts, white-matter lesions, and microbleeds, and is incidentally found by neuroimaging. These lesions are not innocent, as several epidemiologic studies have associated subclinical cerebrovascular disease with an increased risk of stroke, cognitive decline, dementia, and death.

Stent-assisted coil embolization for anterior cerebral artery dissection presented with cerebral infarction

BACKGROUND

Compared to those found in the vertebrobasilar system, intracranial dissection in the anterior circulation is relatively rare, especially in the anterior cerebral artery (ACA). Moreover, only several cases of ACA dissection that underwent endovascular treatment have been reported. Here we present a rare case of gradually developing ACA dissecting aneurysm causing cerebral infarction, successfully treated by stent-assisted coil embolization.

CASE DESCRIPTION

A 36-year-old man was admitted with sudden right hemiparesis. Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance (MR) imaging showed cerebral infarction in the left ACA territory, and MR angiography showed segmental stenosis at the A2 portion of the left ACA. Three-dimensional digital subtraction angiogram showed segmental dilatation and stenosis at the left A2 portion. We diagnosed ACA dissection causing acute cerebral infarction and treated the patient conservatively. Five months after the onset, the dissecting artery at the left A2 portion formed a gradually dilating aneurysm, suggesting increased risk for aneurysmal rupture. We attempted endovascular treatment entailing coil embolization of an aneurysm while preserving the left A2 with stent assistance. The patient remained neurologically stable 6 months after the procedure.

CONCLUSIONS

Although there are few reported cases of ACA dissection where endovascular treatment was attempted, we consider stent-assisted embolization for gradually developing ACA dissecting aneurysm as an alternative method to prevent bleeding and recurrent infarction.

Epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of intracranial artery dissection

Spontaneous intracranial artery dissection is an uncommon and probably underdiagnosed cause of stroke that is defined by the occurrence of a haematoma in the wall of an intracranial artery. Patients can present with headache, ischaemic stroke, subarachnoid haemorrhage, or symptoms associated with mass effect, mostly on the brainstem. Although intracranial artery dissection is less common than cervical artery dissection in adults of European ethnic origin, intracranial artery dissection is reportedly more common in children and in Asian populations. Risk factors and mechanisms are poorly understood, and diagnosis is challenging because characteristic imaging features can be difficult to detect in view of the small size of intracranial arteries. Therefore, multimodal follow-up imaging is often needed to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment of intracranial artery dissections is empirical in the absence of data from randomised controlled trials. Most patients with subarachnoid haemorrhage undergo surgical or endovascular treatment to prevent rebleeding, whereas patients with intracranial artery dissection and cerebral ischaemia are treated with antithrombotics. Prognosis seems worse in patients with subarachnoid haemorrhage than in those without.

Self-Expanding Stent Placement for Anterior Circulation Intracranial Artery Dissection Presenting With Ischemic Symptoms

BACKGROUND:

The prognosis of ischemic anterior circulation intracranial dissection (AC-ICD) is poor and its optimal management is still controversial.

OBJECTIVE:

To evaluate the safety and efficacy of a self-expanding stent for ischemic AC-ICD.

METHODS:

Eight patients (mean age, 36 years) underwent self-expanding stenting for ischemic AC-ICD. Imaging findings of ischemic AC-ICD, the reason for stenting, and the clinical and angiographic outcomes were retrospectively evaluated.

RESULTS:

AC-ICD involved intracranial internal carotid artery to middle cerebral artery (MCA) in 2, intracranial internal carotid artery alone in 3, and MCA alone in 3 patients. Six AC-ICDs showed complete or near occlusions while 2 had a severe degree of stenosis. Six AC-ICDs showed an intimal flap and 3 had intramural hematomas. Six patients underwent emergent stenting for acute stroke within 6 hours (n = 2) or crescendo-type stroke within 24 hours (n = 4), while 2 patients had stenting for recurrent ischemia on dual antiplatelet and/or anticoagulation after the initial attack. The mean dissection-related stenosis improved from 93.1% to 20.3% after stenting (P < .05). The mean National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score improved from 7.5 to 1.4 (P < .05). All patients had excellent or favorable outcomes at 3 months: modified Rankin Scale score, 0 in 3, 1 in 3, and 2 in 1 patient(s). No patients had subarachnoid hemorrhage or ischemic symptom recurrence during the clinical follow-up (mean, 27 months). All stented arteries were patent without significant in-stent stenosis on angiographic follow-up (range, 3–12 months).

CONCLUSION:

Self-expanding stents seem to be safe and effective for AC-ICD presenting with acute/crescendo-type stroke or recurrent ischemia despite adequate medication.

Treatment of dissecting aneurysms of the PICA: anatomical considerations and clinical outcome

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA) dissecting aneurysms require rapid and aggressive treatment by sacrificing the parent vessel of the aneurysm-bearing dissected vessel. We assessed the clinical consequences of PICA occlusion in view of the local vascular anatomy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed a retrospective search of our neurovascular database in the period 2007-2012. Patient characteristics, including clinical presentation, WFNS (World Federation of Neurosurgical Societies) grading and Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS), were recorded. CT and CT angiographic findings as well as the detailed vascular anatomy including collateral circulation were assessed.

RESULTS

We identified 10 patients (5 male; mean age 50 years). Eight patients presented with WFNS grade I and II, one with grade IV and one with grade V. All patients were treated with parent vessel occlusion (PVO). An extradural PICA origin was seen in three patients. Collateral circulation was visible before PVO in two and after PVO in seven additional patients. Despite the presence of collaterals, mild cerebellar ischemia occurred in three patients, without development of a Wallenberg syndrome. Outcome was favorable in 9 patients (8 patients GOS 5, one patient GOS 4). One patient died due to the mass effect of the initial cerebellar hematoma.

CONCLUSION

PVO to treat PICA dissecting aneurysms was well tolerated with a 90% favorable outcome. Regional collateral circulation and vascular variations permitted relative safe vessel occlusion with only minor cerebellar symptoms in this small group of patients.

Spontaneous Bilateral Vertebral Artery Dissection During a Basketball Game: A Case Report

Spontaneous vertebral artery dissection accounts for 2% of all ischemic strokes and can occur as a consequence of sports events. We present an unusual case of spontaneous bilateral vertebral artery dissection in a 30-year-old male patient during a basketball game. He developed severe dysphagia, right hemiparesis, and balance dysfunction. We also present a review of the pathology, diagnosis, symptomatology, treatment, prognosis, and occurrence of this entity in sports.

Hyperhomocysteinemia and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase polymorphism in cervical artery dissection: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Cervical artery dissection (CAD) is a recognized cause of ischemic stroke. Hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy), i.e. an elevated concentration of plasma homocysteine, is identified as an independent risk factor for stroke prevalence. However, an association between HHcy and CAD has so far remained unknown.

METHODS

A meta-analysis was performed to analyze the association between HHcy and CAD as well as the relevance of the C677T polymorphism of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR), the key enzyme in homocysteine metabolism during CAD. We searched PubMed and Embase for studies reporting homocysteine concentrations or MTHFR genotype frequencies in CAD patients from 1990 to 2013. Outcomes were extracted from studies meeting the inclusion criteria and were subjected to a meta-analysis by the random-effect model. Heterogeneity was assessed by the I(2) test.

RESULTS

Eight case-control studies with 2,146 individuals fulfilled the required criteria and were included in the meta-analysis. HHcy was found to be significantly associated with CAD (pooled standardized mean difference: 0.96; 95% confidence interval, CI: 0.42-1.49; p < 0.01). We also found a significantly increased risk of CAD in individuals with the MTHFR C677T polymorphism by both the recessive model (TT vs. CT+CC; odds ratio, OR = 1.81; 95% CI: 1.22-2.67; p = 0.003) and the dominant model (TT+CT vs. CC; OR = 1.47; 95% CI: 1.08-1.99; p = 0.014).

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest positive correlations between HHcy and CAD and between the C677T polymorphism of MTHFR and CAD.

Hyperdense posterior cerebral artery sign in a setting of spontaneous vertebral artery dissection: a blessing in disguise?

OBJECTIVE

To report a case of a hyperdense posterior cerebral artery (PCA) sign in the setting of spontaneous vertebral artery dissection.

CLINICAL PRESENTATION AND INTERVENTION

A 28-year-old, previously healthy female presented with rapidly progressive coma. A noncontrast computerized tomographic (CT) scan showed a hyperdense PCA sign, which prompted an urgent arteriogram. She was found to have spontaneous vertebral artery dissection with an occluding thrombus. She underwent intra-arterial thrombolysis with tissue plasminogen activator. Follow-up magnetic resonance imaging showed an area of acute infarction in the medial temporal and occipital regions corresponding to the area supplied by the left PCA. The patient was started on systemic anticoagulation therapy with intravenous heparin. She showed slow and continued recovery but was left with significant neurological deficits that required posthospital discharge to a long-term rehabilitation facility.

CONCLUSION

This case showed that the hyperdense PCA sign on a noncontrast CT scan necessitated an emergent CT angiogram that showed vertebral artery dissection and a devastating vascular occlusion. Hence, we suggest an early intervention that may allow for potential revascularization therapy.

Outcome of cervicocranial artery dissection with different treatments: a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this meta-analysis is to compare clinical outcomes between endovascular treatment and conservative treatment for cervicocranial artery dissection.

METHODS

Medline, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases were searched for studies comparing endovascular treatment versus conservative treatment for cervicocranial artery dissection patients. The period searched was from November 1994 to March 2013. Fifteen observational studies involving 442 cervicocranial artery dissection patients were found. Evaluated outcomes included rate of mortality, disability, and good recovery. The rebleeding rate in subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) patients was also recorded and compared.

RESULTS

In general, patients who received endovascular treatment enjoyed a lower mortality rate than those who received conservative treatment (P = .02, odds ratio [OR]: .5, 95% confidence interval [CI]: .27-.90), especially patients having ruptured cervicocranial artery dissection (P = .002, OR: .32, 95% CI .15-.66) and dissecting aneurysms (P = .006, OR: .31, 95% CI .14-.71). Among SAH patients with a Hunt-Hess score of 3 or more, endovascular treatment decreased mortality significantly (P = .006, OR: .22, 95% CI .08-.65), whereas no significant differences between these 2 treatments occurred in patients having a Hunt-Hess score less than 3.

CONCLUSIONS

Endovascular treatment yields a better outcome, with greater benefit in patients with ruptured cervicocranial artery dissection, dissecting aneurysms, and a Hunt-Hess score of 3 or more. Randomized controlled trials comparing these 2 therapeutic strategies are needed.

A dilated surface appearance on basiparallel anatomic scanning-magnetic resonance imaging is a useful tool for the diagnosis of spontaneous vertebral artery dissection in lateral medullary infarction

Spontaneous dissection of the vertebral artery (VA) is a major vascular lesion causing lateral medullary infarction (LMI). A dilated surface appearance of the VA is a feature of VA dissection and can be observed on basiparallel anatomic scanning (BPAS)-magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The aim of this study was to validate BPAS-MRI in the diagnosis of VA dissection in patients with LMI. The subjects of the present study were 41 consecutive patients with LMI within 7 days of onset. The diagnosis of VA dissection was made with the clinical criteria-based diagnosis. Percent (%) dilatation of the VA on BPAS-MRI was calculated by comparing the maximum surface diameter of the intracranial VA to the diameter of the distal normal surface of the VA. Fourteen patients (34%) were diagnosed with VA dissection. The optimal cutoff % dilatation of the VA for dissection was more than 169%. The sensitivity and specificity of % dilatation of VA more than 169% and aneurysmal dilatation, stenosis, or occlusion on magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) for VA dissection were 92.9% and 81.5%, respectively. BPAS-MRI combined with time-of-flight-MRA is a useful tool for the diagnosis of VA dissection in patients with acute LMI.

Endovascular treatment of M2 dissecting aneurysm presenting with subarachnoid haemorrhage

A 63-year-old woman presented with a ruptured dissecting aneurysm (DA) at the right M2 region of the angular branches. This report describes a rare case of middle cerebral artery DA presenting with a subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH); the patient was successfully treated with endovascular internal trapping of the DA, without a bypass surgery.

Spontaneous bilateral carotid artery dissection in a patient with bovine aortic arch

Carotid artery dissections are commonly associated with trauma or various connective tissue disorders. Dissection of the cerebrovascular arteries can result in ischemic stroke and is a frequent stroke etiology in younger patients. Anatomical variants of aortic arch branching, such as the ‘bovine’ aortic arch, are assumed to have little or no physiological consequence. To the best of our knowledge, we present for the first time a case of spontaneous dissection of the common origin of the innominate and left common carotid artery in a bovine aortic arch, resulting in bilateral dissection of the carotid arteries.

Endovascular repair of a double-lumen dissecting aneurysm

Treating dissections and dissecting aneurysms requires maintenance of flow through the true lumen and exclusion of the false lumen from the circulation. A dissecting aneurysm of the vertebral artery presented with both a true and false lumen within the aneurysmal sac. Stenting of the true lumen followed by coil embolization of both lumens was performed. Management options and decision-making are discussed for this unique situation.

Endovascular repair of a double-lumen dissecting aneurysm

Treating dissections and dissecting aneurysms requires maintenance of flow through the true lumen and exclusion of the false lumen from the circulation. A dissecting aneurysm of the vertebral artery presented with both a true and false lumen within the aneurysmal sac. Stenting of the true lumen followed by coil embolization of both lumens was performed. Management options and decision-making are discussed for this unique situation.

Current optimal assessment and management of carotid and vertebral spontaneous and traumatic dissection

Dissection of the internal carotid or vertebral artery has been recognized as a cause of stroke in young patients. It is disproportionate in its representation as a cause of stroke in this age group. Intimal tears, intramural hematomas, and dissection aneurysms may be the result of trauma or may occur spontaneously. Spontaneous dissection may be the result of inherent arterial weakness or in association with other predisposing factors. Clinical diagnosis is often difficult, but increased awareness and a range of modern investigations such as computerized tomography or magnetic resonance imaging may aid in diagnosis. Management options include antiplatelet therapy, anticoagulation, thrombolysis, and surgical or endovascular procedures. Prognosis is variable, and dissection may be asymptomatic but may lead to profound neurological deficit and death.

[Traumatic dissection of the internal carotid artery following whiplash injury. Diagnostic workup and therapy of an often overlooked but potentially dangerous additional vascular lesion]

We report on the case of a 33-year-old male patient who was brought to the emergency room of our hospital after suffering a high-energy trauma due to an automobile accident. Besides a scaphoid fracture there were no signs of any neurological deficits. After several hours without clinical symptoms the patient developed dysarthria as the first manifestation of local cerebral ischemia based on a traumatic dissection of the internal carotid artery. Under systemic high-dose heparin therapy, fast and complete remission of all neurological disorders could be achieved. In the course of time a dissecting aneurysm developed. Temporary anticoagulation with phenprocoumon was started in the meantime and no further complications have appeared up to now. Besides presenting this absorbing case, this article highlights the diagnostic and therapeutic regime in cases of a traumatic dissection of supra-aortal arteries for rapid and adequate management of this rare but potentially dangerous complication.

Carotid artery dissection-related intracranial aneurysm development: case report

BACKGROUND AND IMPORTANCE

We analyzed the physiopathology of the association between cervical artery dissections (CADs), intracranial aneurysms (IAs), and aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage.

CLINICAL PRESENTATION

A 43-year-old woman presented with diffuse subarachnoid hemorrhage (Fisher 3; Hunt-Hess 1). computed tomography angiography revealed a cervical internal carotid artery dissection and 2 IAs: right paraclinoid and right posterior communicating artery. The patient underwent surgical clipping of the 2 aneurysms. CAD was managed conservatively. Postoperative course was initially uneventful. After 24 hours, digital subtraction angiography (DSA) documented the exclusion of the aneurysms and an improvement of the CAD. After 3 days, the patient's neurological condition suddenly worsened; CT scan documented a subarachnoid rebleeding (Hunt-Hess 4) and DSA revealed the recurrence of CAD and a new right internal carotid artery aneurysm. The patient underwent clipping of the new aneurysm and decompressive craniectomy because of severe brain swelling. Postoperative neurological conditions remained poor. DSA showed the exclusion of the aneurysms and improvement of CAD. Three days later, CT scan performed after a sudden raise in intracranial pressure documented a wide intracerebral hematoma. Computed tomography angiography did not show new vascular malformations. Surgical removal of the hematoma was performed, but poor neurological conditions persisted.

CONCLUSION

CAD-related hemodynamic changes may play a role in the development of IAs. The presence of IAs must be screened carefully in case of CAD, because the dynamic behavior of CAD definitively increases the risk of IA formation, enlargement, and rupture.

Posterior cerebral artery dissection on a serial magnetic resonance angiography

Posterior cerebral artery (PCA) dissection in children seldom is reported in the literature. This is the second report of acute PCA dissection with infarct occurring in a young child. A serial magnetic resonance angiography demonstrated a delayed and transient narrowing of the arterial caliber, which was consistent with a focal PCA dissection with delayed vascular recanalization. PCA dissection should be included in the causes of infarct in children and a thorough and serial neurovascular imaging should be considered if no cause of stroke is found.

Spontaneous resolution in dissecting aneurysms of the distal middle cerebral artery

Spontaneous resolution of intracranial aneurysms is a rare phenomenon. We describe two cases of ruptured distal middle cerebral artery branch aneurysms associated with initial neurological deficit. Follow-up angiography showed complete resolution of the aneurysms.

Cervical carotid artery disease in sickle cell anemia: clinical and radiological features

Cervical internal carotid artery (cICA) occlusion is a recognized cause of acute ischemic stroke (AIS) in sickle cell disease (SCD), but the associated clinical and radiologic features are not well described. We reviewed data on cervical magnetic resonance angiography (cMRA) performed prospectively in 67 patients (55 children) for indications including transcranial Doppler (TCD) abnormalities, AIS, or previous AIS. cICA lesions were seen in 10 (15%) patients, including 4 of 7 patients presenting with AIS, and appear to have been missed on first presentation in 4 of 10 patients with previous AIS. Radiologic features in 7 patients were consistent with dissection. In 2 patients, there was strong clinical and radiologic evidence for thromboembolic AIS, and this was also considered possible in 4 other patients. Three of the 4 AIS patients were anticoagulated acutely, and the nontreated patient had recurrent, probably thromboembolic, AIS. TCD findings were variable, but in 4 patients there were high velocities in the cerebral vessels contralateral to the cICA stenosis. We suggest that all patients with AIS should have cMRA during acute evaluation to identify cICA occlusions that may require anticoagulation. Routine screening of children with SCD should also include evaluation of neck vessels by carotid Doppler followed by cMRA if a cervical vascular lesion is suspected.

Multidetector computed tomography angiography: Application in vertebral artery dissection

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Multidetector computed tomography angiography (MDCTA) is a minimally invasive radiological technique providing high-resolution images of the arterial wall and angiographic images of the lumen. We studied the radiological features of vertebral artery dissection (VAD) in a consecutive series of patients investigated for acute stroke and subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) in order to confirm and define the diagnostic features of VAD on MDCTA.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Review of patients identified prospectively over a 4-year period with VAD assessed by MDCTA was conducted. Radiological features of VAD on MDCTA were reanalyzed utilising previously reported criteria for VAD.

RESULTS

Thirty-five patients (25 males, mean age 49.6 years) with a total of 45 dissected vertebral arteries were reviewed. MDCTA features of VAD included increased wall thickness in 44/45 (97.7%) arteries and increased total vessel diameter in 42/45 arteries (93.3%). All dissected arteries had either lumen stenosis (21/45) or associated segmental occlusion (24/45). An intimal flap was detected in 6/45 (13.3 %) vessels. Twenty-five patients had follow-up imaging, 14/32 vessels returned to normal, 4 showed improvement in stenosis but did not return to normal and 14 demonstrated no change. The majority of non-occluded vessels became normal or displayed improved patency. Only 4/17 occluded arteries demonstrated re-establishment of flow. No adverse effects were recorded.

CONCLUSIONS

MDCTA is a safe and reliable technique for the diagnosis of VAD. Increased wall thickness (97.7%) and increased vessel wall diameter (93.3%) were the most frequently observed features.

Endovascular stent therapy for extracranial and intracranial carotid artery dissection: single-center experience

Object

The objective of this study was to evaluate endovascular stent therapy for carotid artery dissections (CADs).

Methods

Retrospective review of data at Millard Fillmore Gates Hospital identified 43 patients with 44 CADs (intracranial and/or extracranial) treated with carotid artery (CA) stent placement between January 2000 and June 2009.

Results

Thirty-two CADs were spontaneous and 12 were traumatic; 35 were symptomatic. Lesion locations included the extracranial internal CA (ICA; 24 cases), extracranial ICA with common CA involvement (4 cases), and extracranial ICA–intracranial ICA (16 cases). Carotid artery occlusion was 100% in 15 cases (34.1%), 99% in 6 cases (13.6%), 70%–98% in 13 cases (29.5%), and < 70% in 10 cases (22.7%). Five patients suffered pseudoaneurysms. Stent deployment was successful in 43 (97.7%) of 44 cases. The mean pretreatment score on the National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale was 6.2 ± 6.2. Recanalization (Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction Grade 2 or 3) was accomplished for 42 lesions (95.5%). Four patients demonstrated residual parent vessel stenosis (10%–50% in severity). Procedure-related complications occurred in 7 patients and included middle cerebral artery embolism (1 patient), intracranial hemorrhage (2 patients), worsening of dissection (1 patient), stent malpositioning (1 patient), embolic protection filter overload (1 patient), and filter retrieval device fracture (1 patient). Only 2 of these complications caused permanent deficits: the embolism caused a minor but permanent neurological deficit, and 1 intracranial hemorrhage was fatal. At discharge, 36 patients (83.7%) had modified Rankin Scale scores of 0–2 (favorable outcome). During the follow-up interval (mean 19.2 months, range 4–92 months), no patient suffered a new stroke and 1 patient died secondary to preexisting chronic renal failure. In 20 patients with angiographic follow-up, permanent resolution of the dissection was noted in 90.5%; 2 lesions (9.5%) required retreatment.

Conclusions

Endovascular stent-assisted repair of extra- and intracranial CAD was safe and effective in this experience and can be recommended for selected patients. In particular, patients with symptomatic CADs that are not responsive to medical therapy should be considered for interventional treatment.

Imaging of head trauma

This article reviews the fundamental concepts related to the imaging of head trauma, and it is vital for radiologists to have a thorough understanding of the principal imaging findings in this setting and of the underlying mechanisms which are involved. There is a large and continually expanding body of literature on this subject, and imaging technologies and techniques continue to evolve. Radiologists continue to play an integral role in the assessment and care of patients with head trauma, and in order to maintain and strengthen this role, it is incumbent upon them to stay abreast of these developments.

Cerebrovascular Dissections—A Review Part I: Spontaneous Dissections

Spontaneous cerebrovascular dissections are subintimal or subadventitial cervical carotid and vertebral artery wall injuries and are the cause of as many as 2% of all ischemic strokes. Spontaneous dissections are the leading cause of stroke in patients younger than 45 years of age, accounting for almost one fourth of strokes in this population. A history of some degree of trivial trauma is present in nearly one fourth of cases. Subsequent mortality or neurological morbidity is usually the result of distal ischemia produced by emboli released from the injury site, although local mass effect produced by arterial dilation or aneurysm formation also can occur. The gold standard for diagnosis remains digital subtraction angiography. Computed tomography angiography, magnetic resonance angiography, and ultrasonography are complementary means o evaluation, particularly for injury screening or treatment follow-up. The annual rate of stroke after injury is approximately 1% or less per year. The currently accepted method of therapy remains antithrombotic medication, either in the form of anticoagulation or antiplatelet agents; however, no class I medical evidence exists to guide therapy. Other options for treatment include thrombolysis and endovascular therapy, although the efficacy and indications for these methods remain unclear.

Interventional management for secondary intracranial extension of spontaneous cervical arterial dissection

Background:

Spontaneous cervical artery dissection (sCAD) is an important etiology of stroke and subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) in young patients. Anticoagulation and platelet antiaggregant medications are the treatment of choice, while the indications of endovascular treatment are still to be defined.

Case Description:

We report two cases of medically refractory sCAD with intracranial extension treated successfully with multiple intra and extracranial stents. The patients were evaluated at 4 years and 1-year follow-up.

Conclusion:

Progressive, spontaneous cervical artery dissection with intracranial extension despite adequate medical therapy is rare and associated with worse prognosis. Given the rapid evolution of interventional technology and techniques, if we are better able to predict the cohort of patients that fail medical management, earlier endovascular therapy may be considered.

An unusual cause of vertebral artery dissection: esophagogastroduodenoscopy

Brain-supplying arterial dissection is considered one of the most common vascular causes of stroke in younger patients. Dissections are usually preceded by trauma or mechanical stress; the vascular stressor may be trivial as this condition has been described in association with manipulation and stretching the neck. Here we describe a case of vertebral artery dissection and stroke following esophagogastroduodenoscopy. This case highlights a potentially serious complication that may occur after procedures that require hyperextension of the neck.

Headache attributable to disorders of the eye

Sensory innervation to the eye and periocular area arises from the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve. Thus, ocular, orbital, and systemic disorders may produce head pain with ocular signs and symptoms. Whereas some of these entities have characteristic diagnostic features, others mimic primary headache disorders such as migraine and cluster headache. This article reviews common ocular and neuro-ophthalmic conditions that are accompanied by pain in or near the eye.

Added value of high-resolution MR imaging in the diagnosis of vertebral artery dissection

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The optimal imaging method for the diagnosis of VAD remains undefined. Our aim was to evaluate the added value of HR-MR imaging for the diagnosis of VAD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We retrospectively extracted 35 consecutive patients suspected of having acute VAD who had the following: 1) a focal lumen abnormality of the VA on CE-MRA, 2) HR-MR imaging during the initial hospital stay, and 3) clinical and imaging follow-up within 6 months. Two neurologists classified patients as either VAD (group A) or non-VAD (group B) by reviewing all the available data at hospital discharge, except HR-MR imaging data. On HR-MR imaging, 2 radiologists searched for signs of acute VAD. The 2 classifications were compared. In case of discordance, CE-MRA follow-up and axial fat-suppressed T1WI, used to obtain supportive evidence for or against VAD, were considered as the standard of reference.

RESULTS

In 4/18 patients in group A, HR-MR imaging did not demonstrate any signs of acute VAD and perivertebral signal-intensity changes were attributed to venous plexus, with an unchanged lumen on follow-up. In 4/17 patients in group B, HR-MRI demonstrated a mural hematoma, with lumen normalization on follow-up CE-MRA.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results encourage the use of HR-MR imaging as a second-line diagnostic tool in the event of suspicion of acute VAD and doubtful findings on standard imaging.

Athletics, minor trauma, and pediatric arterial ischemic stroke

Pediatric arterial ischemic stroke may occur as the result of trivial head or neck trauma sustained during a sports activity. We describe three cases of sports-related stroke in previously healthy school-age children and discuss acute and long-term stroke care. Possible mechanisms of sports-related stroke are addressed, as is evaluation for cause of stroke in children. In one of the reported cases, the child was found to have a vertebral artery dissection as the cause of his stroke, but no definitive cause of stroke was identified in the other two cases despite extensive evaluation. The advisability and timing of returning to athletic activities after stroke is also discussed. Many children with sports-related stroke are initially seen by a sports trainer, a pediatrician, or an ER physician. Thus, it is particularly important that these professionals are aware of the possibility of ischemic stroke occurring after even mild athletic injury. Childhood stroke may result from injuries sustained during athletic activities and should be considered when a child has acute focal neurologic signs.

A study of vertebrobasilar artery dissection with subarachnoid hemorrhage

We retrospectively studied clinical characteristics of 368 patients with cerebral artery dissections who were diagnosed in 172 Japanese hospitals. Of these patients, 130 (35%) presented with subarachnoid hemorrhage, 217 (59%) with cerebral infarctions, and 21 (6%) with transient ischemic attacks. We analyzed 109 (84%) subarachnoid hemorrhage cases caused by vertebrobasilar artery dissection to evaluate conservative and surgical treatment from the viewpoint of postoperative rerupture and infarction.Subsequent ruptures were observed in 14% of the 21 cases with nonsurgical treatment. For the preventive purpose of rerupture, 88 patients received surgical interventions: 68 trappings, 13 proximal occlusions, 6 aneurysmal sac occlusions and 1 stenting. Rerupture was experienced in 33% of the aneurysmal sac occlusion patients while not occurring in the other three surgical interventions. In the group without vascular anastomosis, postoperative cerebral infarction was observed in 25% of the trapping, none of the proximal occlusion and 33% of the aneurysmal sac occlusion cases.In this study, aneurysmal sac occlusion treatments were more frequently complicated by rerupture or cerebral infarction postoperatively than the other treatment methods. It was difficult to determine which surgical treatment can achieve better surgical outcome among the proximal occlusion and trapping with or without vascular anastomosis.

[Cerebrovascular diseases]

In the majority of the cases cerebrovascular disease is caused by atherosclerosis. Duplexsonography is the diagnostic tool of first choice. Management of cardiovascular risk factors is of paramount importance in secondary prevention of atherosclerotic vascular complications. Patients with a symptomatic internal carotid artery stenosis >70% have a clear indication for revascularization. Asymptomatic patients with >60% stenosis benefit from revascularisation if the perioperative risk for death or stroke is below 3%. The optimal revascularization strategy highly depends on the expertise of the local surgeon or endovascular specialist. In younger patients with cerebrovascular disease rare causes such as dissection, large vessel arteritis, fibromuscular dysplasia or vasospasms have to be considered.