51
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Differential mechanisms of tolerance to extreme environmental conditions in tardigrades. Sci Rep 2019; 9:14938. [PMID: 31624306 PMCID: PMC6797769 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-51471-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 09/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Tardigrades, also known as water bears, are small aquatic animals that inhabit marine, fresh water or limno-terrestrial environments. While all tardigrades require surrounding water to grow and reproduce, species living in limno-terrestrial environments (e.g. Ramazzottius varieornatus) are able to undergo almost complete dehydration by entering an arrested state known as anhydrobiosis, which allows them to tolerate ionic radiation, extreme temperatures and intense pressure. Previous studies based on comparison of the genomes of R. varieornatus and Hypsibius dujardini - a less tolerant tardigrade - have pointed to potential mechanisms that may partially contribute to their remarkable ability to resist extreme physical conditions. In this work, we have further annotated the genomes of both tardigrades using a guided approach in search for novel mechanisms underlying the extremotolerance of R. varieornatus. We have found specific amplifications of several genes, including MRE11 and XPC, and numerous missense variants exclusive of R. varieornatus in CHEK1, POLK, UNG and TERT, all of them involved in important pathways for DNA repair and telomere maintenance. Taken collectively, these results point to genomic features that may contribute to the enhanced ability to resist extreme environmental conditions shown by R. varieornatus.
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52
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Driver mutations in Janus kinases in a mouse model of B-cell leukemia induced by deletion of PU.1 and Spi-B. Blood Adv 2019; 2:2798-2810. [PMID: 30355579 DOI: 10.1182/bloodadvances.2018019950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Precursor B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) is associated with recurrent mutations that occur in cancer-initiating cells. There is a need to understand how driver mutations influence clonal evolution of leukemia. The E26-transformation-specific (ETS) transcription factors PU.1 and Spi-B (encoded by Spi1 and Spib) execute a critical role in B-cell development and serve as complementary tumor suppressors. Here, we used a mouse model to conditionally delete Spi1 and Spib genes in developing B cells. These mice developed B-ALL with a median time to euthanasia of 18 weeks. We performed RNA and whole-exome sequencing (WES) on leukemias isolated from Mb1-CreΔPB mice and identified single nucleotide variants (SNVs) in Jak1, Jak3, and Ikzf3 genes, resulting in amino acid sequence changes. Jak3 mutations resulted in amino acid substitutions located in the pseudo-kinase (R653H, V670A) and in the kinase (T844M) domains. Introduction of Jak3 T844M into Spi1/Spib-deficient precursor B cells was sufficient to promote proliferation in response to low IL-7 concentrations in culture, and to promote proliferation and leukemia-like disease in transplanted mice. We conclude that mutations in Janus kinases represent secondary drivers of leukemogenesis that cooperate with Spi1/Spib deletion. This mouse model represents a useful tool to study clonal evolution in B-ALL.
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53
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Wiggers CR, Baak ML, Sonneveld E, Nieuwenhuis EE, Bartels M, Creyghton MP. AML Subtype Is a Major Determinant of the Association between Prognostic Gene Expression Signatures and Their Clinical Significance. Cell Rep 2019; 28:2866-2877.e5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2019] [Revised: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
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54
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Ragusa D, Makarov EM, Britten O, Moralli D, Green CM, Tosi S. The RS4;11 cell line as a model for leukaemia with t(4;11)(q21;q23): Revised characterisation of cytogenetic features. Cancer Rep (Hoboken) 2019; 2:e1207. [PMID: 32721124 PMCID: PMC7941496 DOI: 10.1002/cnr2.1207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Revised: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Haematological malignancies harbouring rearrangements of the KMT2A gene represent a unique subtype of leukaemia, with biphenotypic clinical manifestations, a rapid and aggressive onset, and a generally poor prognosis. Chromosomal translocations involving KMT2A often cause the formation of oncogenic fusion genes, such as the most common translocation t(4;11)(q21;q23) producing the KMT2A-AFF1 chimera. AIM The aim of this study was to confirm and review the cytogenetic and molecular features of the KMT2A-rearranged RS4;11 cell line and put those in context with other reports of cell lines also harbouring a t(4;11) rearrangement. METHODS AND RESULTS The main chromosomal rearrangements t(4;11)(q21;q23) and i(7q), described when the cell line was first established, were confirmed by fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) and 24-colour karyotyping by M-FISH. Additional cytogenetic abnormalities were investigated by further FISH experiments, including the presence of trisomy 18 as a clonal abnormality and the discovery of one chromosome 8 being an i(8q), which indicates a duplication of the oncogene MYC. A homozygous deletion of 9p21 containing the tumour-suppressor genes CDKN2A and CDKN2B was also revealed by FISH. The production of the fusion transcript KMT2A-AFF1 arising from the der(11)t(4;11) was confirmed by RT-PCR, but sequencing of the amplified fragment revealed the presence of multiple isoforms. Two transcript variants, resulting from alternative splicing, were identified differing in one glutamine residue in the translated protein. CONCLUSION As karyotype evolution is a common issue in cell lines, we highlight the need to monitor cell lines in order to re-confirm their characteristics over time. We also reviewed the literature to provide a comparison of key features of several cell lines harbouring a t(4;11). This would guide scientists in selecting the most suitable research model for this particular type of KMT2A-leukaemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise Ragusa
- Division of Biosciences, College of Health and Life Sciences, Institute of Environment, Health and Societies, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UK
| | - Evgeny M Makarov
- Division of Biosciences, College of Health and Life Sciences, Institute of Environment, Health and Societies, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UK.,Genome Engineering and Maintenance Network, Institute of Environment, Health and Societies, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UK
| | - Oliver Britten
- Division of Biosciences, College of Health and Life Sciences, Institute of Environment, Health and Societies, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UK
| | - Daniela Moralli
- Chromosome Dynamics, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Catherine M Green
- Chromosome Dynamics, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Sabrina Tosi
- Division of Biosciences, College of Health and Life Sciences, Institute of Environment, Health and Societies, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UK.,Genome Engineering and Maintenance Network, Institute of Environment, Health and Societies, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UK
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55
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Loh JW, Khiabanian H. Leukemia’s Clonal Evolution in Development, Progression, and Relapse. CURRENT STEM CELL REPORTS 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s40778-019-00157-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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56
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Integrated analysis of relapsed B-cell precursor Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia identifies subtype-specific cytokine and metabolic signatures. Sci Rep 2019; 9:4188. [PMID: 30862934 PMCID: PMC6414622 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-40786-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2018] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent efforts reclassified B-Cell Precursor Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (BCP-ALL) into more refined subtypes. Nevertheless, outcomes of relapsed BCP-ALL remain unsatisfactory, particularly in adult patients where the molecular basis of relapse is still poorly understood. To elucidate the evolution of relapse in BCP-ALL, we established a comprehensive multi-omics dataset including DNA-sequencing, RNA-sequencing, DNA methylation array and proteome MASS-spec data from matched diagnosis and relapse samples of BCP-ALL patients (n = 50) including the subtypes DUX4, Ph-like and two aneuploid subtypes. Relapse-specific alterations were enriched for chromatin modifiers, nucleotide and steroid metabolism including the novel candidates FPGS, AGBL and ZNF483. The proteome expression analysis unraveled deregulation of metabolic pathways at relapse including the key proteins G6PD, TKT, GPI and PGD. Moreover, we identified a novel relapse-specific gene signature specific for DUX4 BCP-ALL patients highlighting chemotaxis and cytokine environment as a possible driver event at relapse. This study presents novel insights at distinct molecular levels of relapsed BCP-ALL based on a comprehensive multi-omics integrated data set including a valuable proteomics data set. The relapse specific aberrations reveal metabolic signatures on genomic and proteomic levels in BCP-ALL relapse. Furthermore, the chemokine expression signature in DUX4 relapse underscores the distinct status of DUX4-fusion BCP-ALL.
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57
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Molecular characterization of AML with RUNX1-RUNX1T1 at diagnosis and relapse reveals net loss of co-mutations. Hemasphere 2019; 3:e178. [PMID: 31723813 PMCID: PMC6745937 DOI: 10.1097/hs9.0000000000000178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Revised: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Supplemental Digital Content is available in the text AML with RUNX1-RUNX1T1 fusion is a WHO entity with a favorable outcome following intensive chemotherapy. The absence of RUNX1-RUNX1T1 transcripts in remission defines complete molecular response and correlates with a superior survival. However, a significant proportion of patients still relapses and defining molecular risk factors that identify patients at diagnosis or at molecular remission that are at risk of relapse could help tailor treatment strategies for those high risk patients. Here, we analyze a cohort of 94 patients that reach a molecular remission (MR) following intensive treatment and identify 21 patients that relapse despite achieving MR. Using targeted sequencing of 63 genes implicated in hematologic malignancies we show that at diagnosis patients who relapse following MR have a higher burden of co-mutated genes than patients that do not relapse (median = 2 vs median = 0; P = 0.0156). This resulted in a relapse free survival rate of 65% vs 86% at 2 years, respectively (≥1 co-mutation vs no co-mutation, P = 0.02) with a trend for inferior overall survival (n.s.). Applying sensitive sequencing to reassess mutations at relapse in paired samples of 17/21 patients we demonstrate a net loss of co-mutations at relapse: median 2 (range 0–5) vs 1 (0–4) at diagnosis and relapse (P = 0.048). At relapse more patients had no detected co-mutation compared to diagnosis (47% vs 17%, P = 0.034). Co-mutations at diagnosis, therefore, might represent a general susceptibility of the AML clone to acquire mutations and the true nature of 2nd hit mutations that drive leukemia has to be defined for AML with RUNX1-RUNX1T1 fusion.
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58
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Clonal dynamics monitoring during clinical evolution in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. Sci Rep 2019; 9:975. [PMID: 30700761 PMCID: PMC6353992 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37389-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Accepted: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia is the most prevalent leukaemia in Western countries. It is an incurable disease characterized by a highly variable clinical course. Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia is an ideal model for studying clonal heterogeneity and dynamics during cancer progression, response to therapy and/or relapse because the disease usually develops over several years. Here we report an analysis by deep sequencing of sequential samples taken at different times from the affected organs of two patients with 12- and 7-year disease courses, respectively. One of the patients followed a linear pattern of clonal evolution, acquiring and selecting new mutations in response to salvage therapy and/or allogeneic transplantation, while the other suffered loss of cellular tumoral clones during progression and histological transformation.
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59
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Wendorff AA, Quinn SA, Rashkovan M, Madubata CJ, Ambesi-Impiombato A, Litzow MR, Tallman MS, Paietta E, Paganin M, Basso G, Gastier-Foster JM, Loh ML, Rabadan R, Van Vlierberghe P, Ferrando AA. Phf6 Loss Enhances HSC Self-Renewal Driving Tumor Initiation and Leukemia Stem Cell Activity in T-ALL. Cancer Discov 2018; 9:436-451. [PMID: 30567843 DOI: 10.1158/2159-8290.cd-18-1005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Revised: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The plant homeodomain 6 gene (PHF6) is frequently mutated in human T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL); however, its specific functional role in leukemia development remains to be established. Here, we show that loss of PHF6 is an early mutational event in leukemia transformation. Mechanistically, genetic inactivation of Phf6 in the hematopoietic system enhances hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) long-term self-renewal and hematopoietic recovery after chemotherapy by rendering Phf6 knockout HSCs more quiescent and less prone to stress-induced activation. Consistent with a leukemia-initiating tumor suppressor role, inactivation of Phf6 in hematopoietic progenitors lowers the threshold for the development of NOTCH1-induced T-ALL. Moreover, loss of Phf6 in leukemia lymphoblasts activates a leukemia stem cell transcriptional program and drives enhanced T-ALL leukemia-initiating cell activity. These results implicate Phf6 in the control of HSC homeostasis and long-term self-renewal and support a role for PHF6 loss as a driver of leukemia-initiating cell activity in T-ALL. SIGNIFICANCE: Phf6 controls HSC homeostasis, leukemia initiation, and T-ALL leukemia-initiating cell self-renewal. These results substantiate a role for PHF6 mutations as early events and drivers of leukemia stem cell activity in the pathogenesis of T-ALL.This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 305.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - S Aidan Quinn
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York.,Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York
| | - Marissa Rashkovan
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - Chioma J Madubata
- Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York
| | | | - Mark R Litzow
- Division of Hematology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Martin S Tallman
- Department of Hematologic Oncology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Elisabeth Paietta
- Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York
| | - Maddalena Paganin
- Onco-Hematology Division, Department, Salute della Donna e del Bambino (SDB), University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Basso
- Onco-Hematology Division, Department, Salute della Donna e del Bambino (SDB), University of Padua, Padua, Italy.,Italian Institute for Genomic Medicine (HMG), Turin, Italy
| | - Julie M Gastier-Foster
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, Ohio.,Department of Pathology, Ohio State University School of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio.,Department of Pediatrics, Ohio State University School of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio.,Children's Oncology Group, Arcadia, California
| | - Mignon L Loh
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, California.,Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, California
| | - Raul Rabadan
- Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York.,Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York
| | - Pieter Van Vlierberghe
- Center for Medical Genetics Ghent, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Cancer Research Institute Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Adolfo A Ferrando
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York. .,Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York.,Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York.,Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York
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60
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Abstract
Glucocorticoid resistance represents a major challenge in treating acute lymphoblastic leukemia. In this issue of Cancer Cell, Jing and colleagues show epigenetic deregulation of glucocorticoid-induced BIM activation in glucocorticoid-resistant leukemia cells, and restore glucocorticoid-receptor-induced BIM upregulation with DNA demethylating agents to effectively enhance glucocorticoid response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessie A Brown
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Adolfo Ferrando
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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61
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Zhu H, Zhang L, Wu Y, Dong B, Guo W, Wang M, Yang L, Fan X, Tang Y, Liu N, Lei X, Wu H. T-ALL leukemia stem cell 'stemness' is epigenetically controlled by the master regulator SPI1. eLife 2018; 7:38314. [PMID: 30412053 PMCID: PMC6251627 DOI: 10.7554/elife.38314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Leukemia stem cells (LSCs) are regarded as the origins and key therapeutic targets of leukemia, but limited knowledge is available on the key determinants of LSC 'stemness'. Using single-cell RNA-seq analysis, we identify a master regulator, SPI1, the LSC-specific expression of which determines the molecular signature and activity of LSCs in the murine Pten-null T-ALL model. Although initiated by PTEN-controlled β-catenin activation, Spi1 expression and LSC 'stemness' are maintained by a β-catenin-SPI1-HAVCR2 regulatory circuit independent of the leukemogenic driver mutation. Perturbing any component of this circuit either genetically or pharmacologically can prevent LSC formation or eliminate existing LSCs. LSCs lose their 'stemness' when Spi1 expression is silenced by DNA methylation, but Spi1 expression can be reactivated by 5-AZ treatment. Importantly, similar regulatory mechanisms may be also present in human T-ALL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haichuan Zhu
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Genomics, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Liuzhen Zhang
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Genomics, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Yilin Wu
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Genomics, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Bingjie Dong
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Genomics, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Weilong Guo
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Genomics, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Mei Wang
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Genomics, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Lu Yang
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Genomics, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoying Fan
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Genomics, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuliang Tang
- Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Department of Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Ningshu Liu
- Drug Discovery Oncology, Bayer Pharmaceuticals, Berlin, Germany
| | - Xiaoguang Lei
- Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Department of Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Hong Wu
- The MOE Key Laboratory of Cell Proliferation and Differentiation, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Genomics, Peking University, Beijing, China
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62
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Genome Sequencing and Analysis Methods in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia. Methods Mol Biol 2018. [PMID: 30350214 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-8876-1_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
Abstract
The genomic sequencing of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) samples has provided exciting new venues for the understanding and treatment of this prevalent disease. This feat is possible thanks to high-throughput sequencing methods, such as Illumina sequencing. The interpretation of these data sources requires not only appropriate software and hardware, but also understanding the biology and technology behind the sequencing process. Here, we provide a primer to understand each step in the analysis of point mutations from whole-genome or whole-exome sequencing experiments of tumor and normal samples.
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63
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Wang Y, Yang X, Sun X, Rong L, Kang M, Wu P, Ji X, Lin R, Huang J, Xue Y, Fang Y. Bone marrow infiltrated Lnc-INSR induced suppressive immune microenvironment in pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cell Death Dis 2018; 9:1043. [PMID: 30310051 PMCID: PMC6181910 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-018-1078-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Revised: 08/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Immune escape due to immunosuppressive microenvironments, such as those associated with regulatory T (Treg) cells is highly associated with initial occurrence and development of solid tumors or hematologic malignancies. Here, we employed high-throughput transcriptome screening to demonstrate immunosuppression-associated increases in the long noncoding (lnc) RNA lnc-insulin receptor precursor (INSR), which was corrected with INSR expression in CD4+ T cells extracted from the bone marrow of patients with childhood acute T lymphoblastic leukemia. Loss-of-function and gain-of-function assays in vitro and in vivo revealed that membrane-localized and cytoplasm-localized lnc-INSR promoted Treg distribution and decreased the percentage of cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which induced tumor growth. Through direct binding with INSR, lnc-INSR blocked the INSR ubiquitination site, causing abnormal activation of INSR and the phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase/AKT-signaling pathway. These results indicated that lnc-INSR might promote immune suppression by enhancing Treg-cell differentiation and serve as valuable therapeutic targets in the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaping Wang
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 72# Guangzhou Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Xiaoyun Yang
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 72# Guangzhou Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xiaoyan Sun
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 72# Guangzhou Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Liucheng Rong
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 72# Guangzhou Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Meiyun Kang
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 72# Guangzhou Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Peng Wu
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 72# Guangzhou Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xiaohui Ji
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 72# Guangzhou Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Rufeng Lin
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 72# Guangzhou Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jie Huang
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 72# Guangzhou Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yao Xue
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 72# Guangzhou Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yongjun Fang
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Children's Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing Medical University, 72# Guangzhou Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China.
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64
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Chen G, Cai Z, Li Z, Dong X, Xu H, Lin J, Chen L, Zhang H, Liu X, Liu J. Clonal evolution in long-term follow-up patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Cancer 2018; 143:2862-2870. [PMID: 30183077 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.31844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2018] [Revised: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
To investigate tumor clonal evolution in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), we collected 31 tumor samples,16 peritumor samples and matched PBMCs from 11 long-term follow-up patients with HCC. Whole-exome sequencing was performed to obtain SNVs and CNVs for each sample. An average of 652.2 somatic mutations were identified in each patient and the mean percentage of nonubiquitous tumor mutations was 63.7% (range, 0.7%-100%), reflecting the variety of tumor heterogeneity. Further analysis of clonal evolution was conducted based on mutation clustering results and revealed that different clonal evolution patterns indeed existed in single and multifocal HCC while these patterns were significantly correlated to patients' clinical course. These patterns clearly demonstrated different mechanisms of tumor recurrence. During tumor clonal evolution, potential therapeutic targets also emerged and vanished dynamically. Moreover, mutation analysis revealed that the contribution of mutational signature was correlated with clonal evolution history. Target sequencing of follow-up plasma samples also confirmed that ctDNA level could dynamically reflect tumor clonal/subclonal burden. By investigating clonal evolution in HCC patients, our analysis revealed that different patterns indeed existed during HCC progression and proposed a novel strategy for identifying the origin of recurrent tumor as well as optimizing treatment selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geng Chen
- The United Innovation of Mengchao Hepatobiliary Technology Key Laboratory of Fujian Province, Mengchao Hepatobiliary Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China.,The Liver Center of Fujian Province, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Zhixiong Cai
- The United Innovation of Mengchao Hepatobiliary Technology Key Laboratory of Fujian Province, Mengchao Hepatobiliary Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China.,The Liver Center of Fujian Province, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Zhenli Li
- The United Innovation of Mengchao Hepatobiliary Technology Key Laboratory of Fujian Province, Mengchao Hepatobiliary Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China.,The Liver Center of Fujian Province, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xiuqing Dong
- The United Innovation of Mengchao Hepatobiliary Technology Key Laboratory of Fujian Province, Mengchao Hepatobiliary Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China.,The Liver Center of Fujian Province, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Haipo Xu
- The United Innovation of Mengchao Hepatobiliary Technology Key Laboratory of Fujian Province, Mengchao Hepatobiliary Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China.,The Liver Center of Fujian Province, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Jianling Lin
- The United Innovation of Mengchao Hepatobiliary Technology Key Laboratory of Fujian Province, Mengchao Hepatobiliary Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China.,The Liver Center of Fujian Province, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Lihong Chen
- The United Innovation of Mengchao Hepatobiliary Technology Key Laboratory of Fujian Province, Mengchao Hepatobiliary Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China.,The Liver Center of Fujian Province, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Huqin Zhang
- School of Life Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xiaolong Liu
- The United Innovation of Mengchao Hepatobiliary Technology Key Laboratory of Fujian Province, Mengchao Hepatobiliary Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China.,The Liver Center of Fujian Province, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Jingfeng Liu
- The United Innovation of Mengchao Hepatobiliary Technology Key Laboratory of Fujian Province, Mengchao Hepatobiliary Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China.,The Liver Center of Fujian Province, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China.,Liver Disease Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
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65
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Altered patterns of global protein synthesis and translational fidelity in RPS15-mutated chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Blood 2018; 132:2375-2388. [PMID: 30181176 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2017-09-804401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Genomic studies have recently identified RPS15 as a new driver gene in aggressive and chemorefractory cases of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). RPS15 encodes a ribosomal protein whose conserved C-terminal domain extends into the decoding center of the ribosome. We demonstrate that mutations in highly conserved residues of this domain affect protein stability, by increasing its ubiquitin-mediated degradation, and cell-proliferation rates. On the other hand, we show that mutated RPS15 can be loaded into the ribosomes, directly impacting on global protein synthesis and/or translational fidelity in a mutation-specific manner. Quantitative mass spectrometry analyses suggest that RPS15 variants may induce additional alterations in the translational machinery, as well as a metabolic shift at the proteome level in HEK293T and MEC-1 cells. These results indicate that CLL-related RPS15 mutations might act following patterns known for other ribosomal diseases, likely switching from a hypo- to a hyperproliferative phenotype driven by mutated ribosomes. In this scenario, loss of translational fidelity causing altered cell proteostasis can be proposed as a new molecular mechanism involved in CLL pathobiology.
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66
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Therapeutic Targeting of mTOR in T-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: An Update. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19071878. [PMID: 29949919 PMCID: PMC6073309 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19071878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 06/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) is an aggressive blood malignancy that arises from the clonal expansion of transformed T-cell precursors. Although T-ALL prognosis has significantly improved due to the development of intensive chemotherapeutic protocols, primary drug-resistant and relapsed patients still display a dismal outcome. In addition, lifelong irreversible late effects from conventional therapy are a growing problem for leukemia survivors. Therefore, novel targeted therapies are required to improve the prognosis of high-risk patients. The mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) is the kinase subunit of two structurally and functionally distinct multiprotein complexes, which are referred to as mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) and mTORC2. These two complexes regulate a variety of physiological cellular processes including protein, lipid, and nucleotide synthesis, as well as autophagy in response to external cues. However, mTOR activity is frequently deregulated in cancer, where it plays a key oncogenetic role driving tumor cell proliferation, survival, metabolic transformation, and metastatic potential. Promising preclinical studies using mTOR inhibitors have demonstrated efficacy in many human cancer types, including T-ALL. Here, we highlight our current knowledge of mTOR signaling and inhibitors in T-ALL, with an emphasis on emerging evidence of the superior efficacy of combinations consisting of mTOR inhibitors and either traditional or targeted therapeutics.
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Abstract
Aplastic anemia (AA) is an immune-mediated disorder that overlaps closely with clonal disorders, such as myelodysplastic syndrome and paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH). PIGA mutations in PNH clones and functional loss of HLA, including structural HLA mutations, likely represent immune escape clones and correlate with response to immunosuppressive therapy (IST). Somatic mutations typical for myeloid malignancies and age-related clonal hematopoiesis are detected in a proportion of AA patients, but their significance is unclear and seems to depend on whether patients are tested at diagnosis or after IST, patient age and ethnicity, and the methodology of molecular testing used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghulam J Mufti
- Department of Haematological Medicine, King's College Hospital, King's College London, Denmark Hill, London SE59RS, UK
| | - Judith C W Marsh
- Department of Haematological Medicine, King's College Hospital, King's College London, Denmark Hill, London SE59RS, UK.
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68
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Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) as a rich source of bioactive components to combat cancer naturally: Are we on the right track to fully unlock its potential as inhibitor of deregulated signaling pathways. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 119:98-105. [PMID: 29753870 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2018] [Revised: 05/07/2018] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Research over decades has progressively explored pharmacological actions of bitter gourd (Momordica charantia). Biologically and pharmacologically active molecules isolated from M. charantia have shown significant anti-cancer activity in cancer cell lines and xenografted mice. In this review spotlight was set on the bioactive compounds isolated from M. charantia that effectively inhibited cancer development and progression via regulation of protein network in cancer cells. We summarize most recent high-quality research work in cancer cell lines and xenografted mice related to tumor suppressive role-play of M. charantia and its bioactive compounds. Although M. charantia mediated health promoting, anti-diabetic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory effects have been extensively investigated, there is insufficient information related to regulation of signaling networks by bioactive molecules obtained from M. charantia in different cancers. M. charantia has been shown to modulate AKT/mTOR/p70S6K signaling, p38MAPK-MAPKAPK-2/HSP-27 pathway, cell cycle regulatory proteins and apoptosis-associated proteins in different cancers. However, still there are visible knowledge gaps related to the drug targets in different cancers because we have not yet developed comprehensive understanding of the M. charantia mediated regulation of signal transduction pathways. To explore these questions, experimental platforms are needed that can prove to be helpful in getting a step closer to personalized medicine.
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69
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Chronic lymphocytic leukemia and mantle cell lymphoma: crossroads of genetic and microenvironment interactions. Blood 2018; 131:2283-2296. [PMID: 29666114 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2017-10-764373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 01/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) and mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) are 2 well-defined entities that diverge in their basic pathogenic mechanisms and clinical evolution but they share epidemiological characteristics, cells of origin, molecular alterations, and clinical features that differ from other lymphoid neoplasms. CLL and MCL are classically considered indolent and aggressive neoplasms, respectively. However, the clinical evolution of both tumors is very heterogeneous, with subsets of patients having stable disease for a long time whereas others require immediate intervention. Both CLL and MCL include 2 major molecular subtypes that seem to derive from antigen-experienced CD5+ B cells that retain a naive or memory-like epigenetic signature and carry a variable load of immunoglobulin heavy-chain variable region somatic mutations from truly unmutated to highly mutated, respectively. These 2 subtypes of tumors differ in their molecular pathways, genomic alterations, and clinical behavior, being more aggressive in naive-like than memory-like-derived tumors in both CLL and MCL. The pathogenesis of the 2 entities integrates the relevant influence of B-cell receptor signaling, tumor cell microenvironment interactions, genomic alterations, and epigenome modifications that configure the evolution of the tumors and offer new possibilities for therapeutic intervention. This review will focus on the similarities and differences of these 2 tumors based on recent studies that are enhancing the understanding of their pathogenesis and creating solid bases for new management strategies.
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70
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71
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Abstract
Mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) is the kinase subunit of two structurally and functionally distinct large multiprotein complexes, referred to as mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) and mTORC2. mTORC1 and mTORC2 play key physiological roles as they control anabolic and catabolic processes in response to external cues in a variety of tissues and organs. However, mTORC1 and mTORC2 activities are deregulated in widespread human diseases, including cancer. Cancer cells take advantage of mTOR oncogenic signaling to drive their proliferation, survival, metabolic transformation, and metastatic potential. Therefore, mTOR lends itself very well as a therapeutic target for innovative cancer treatment. mTOR was initially identified as the target of the antibiotic rapamycin that displayed remarkable antitumor activity in vitro Promising preclinical studies using rapamycin and its derivatives (rapalogs) demonstrated efficacy in many human cancer types, hence supporting the launch of numerous clinical trials aimed to evaluate the real effectiveness of mTOR-targeted therapies. However, rapamycin and rapalogs have shown very limited activity in most clinical contexts, also when combined with other drugs. Thus, novel classes of mTOR inhibitors with a stronger antineoplastic potency have been developed. Nevertheless, emerging clinical data suggest that also these novel mTOR-targeting drugs may have a weak antitumor activity. Here, we summarize the current status of available mTOR inhibitors and highlight the most relevant results from both preclinical and clinical studies that have provided valuable insights into both their efficacy and failure.
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72
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Tzoneva G, Dieck CL, Oshima K, Ambesi-Impiombato A, Sánchez-Martín M, Madubata CJ, Khiabanian H, Yu J, Waanders E, Iacobucci I, Sulis ML, Kato M, Koh K, Paganin M, Basso G, Gastier-Foster JM, Loh ML, Kirschner-Schwabe R, Mullighan CG, Rabadan R, Ferrando AA. Clonal evolution mechanisms in NT5C2 mutant-relapsed acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Nature 2018; 553:511-514. [PMID: 29342136 PMCID: PMC5931372 DOI: 10.1038/nature25186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Relapsed acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is associated with chemotherapy resistance and poor prognosis1. Gain-of-function mutations in the 5′-nucleotidase, cytosolic II (NT5C2) gene induce resistance to 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP) and are selectively present in relapsed ALL2,3. Yet, the mechanisms involved in NT5C2 mutation-driven clonal evolution during leukemia initiation, disease progression and relapse remain unknown. Using a conditional inducible leukemia model, we demonstrate that expression of Nt5c2 p.R367Q, a highly prevalent relapsed-ALL NT5C2 mutation, induces resistance to chemotherapy with 6-MP at the cost of impaired leukemia cell growth and leukemia-initiating cell activity. The loss of fitness phenotype of Nt5c2+/R367Q mutant cells is associated with excess export of purines to the extracellular space and depletion of the intracellular purine nucleotide pool. Consequently, blocking guanosine synthesis via inosine-5′-monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) inhibition induced increased cytotoxicity against NT5C2-mutant leukemia lymphoblasts. These results identify NT5C2 mutation-associated fitness cost and resistance to chemotherapy as key evolutionary drivers shaping clonal evolution in relapsed ALL and support a role for IMPDH inhibition in the treatment of ALL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gannie Tzoneva
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA
| | - Chelsea L Dieck
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA
| | - Koichi Oshima
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA
| | | | - Marta Sánchez-Martín
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA
| | - Chioma J Madubata
- Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA
| | - Hossein Khiabanian
- Rutgers Cancer Institute, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903, USA
| | - Jiangyan Yu
- Princess Maxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, 3584 CT, the Netherlands.,Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center and Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Nijmegen, 6525 GA, the Netherlands
| | - Esme Waanders
- Princess Maxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, 3584 CT, the Netherlands
| | - Ilaria Iacobucci
- Department of Pathology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105, USA
| | - Maria Luisa Sulis
- Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, USA
| | - Motohiro Kato
- Department of Hematology-Oncology, Saitama Children's Medical Center, Saitama 339-8551, Japan
| | - Katsuyoshi Koh
- Department of Hematology-Oncology, Saitama Children's Medical Center, Saitama 339-8551, Japan
| | - Maddalena Paganin
- Onco-Hematology Division, Department, Salute della Donna e del Bambino (SDB), University of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Basso
- Onco-Hematology Division, Department, Salute della Donna e del Bambino (SDB), University of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy
| | - Julie M Gastier-Foster
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, Ohio 43205, USA.,Department of Pathology, Ohio State University School of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Ohio State University School of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA.,Children's Oncology Group, Arcadia, California 91006, USA
| | - Mignon L Loh
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, California 94143, USA.,Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, California 94115, USA
| | - Renate Kirschner-Schwabe
- Department of Pediatric Oncology/Hematology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, 10117, Germany
| | - Charles G Mullighan
- Department of Pathology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105, USA
| | - Raul Rabadan
- Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA.,Department of Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA
| | - Adolfo A Ferrando
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA.,Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, USA.,Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, USA
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73
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From Drosophila Blood Cells to Human Leukemia. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1076:195-214. [PMID: 29951821 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-0529-0_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The hematopoietic system plays a critical role in establishing the proper response against invading pathogens or in removing cancerous cells. Furthermore, deregulations of the hematopoietic differentiation program are at the origin of numerous diseases including leukemia. Importantly, many aspects of blood cell development have been conserved from human to Drosophila. Hence, Drosophila has emerged as a potent genetic model to study blood cell development and leukemia in vivo. In this chapter, we give a brief overview of the Drosophila hematopoietic system, and we provide a protocol for the dissection and the immunostaining of the larval lymph gland, the most studied hematopoietic organ in Drosophila. We then focus on the various paradigms that have been used in fly to investigate how conserved genes implicated in leukemogenesis control blood cell development. Specific examples of Drosophila models for leukemia are presented, with particular attention to the most translational ones. Finally, we discuss some limitations and potential improvements of Drosophila models for studying blood cell cancer.
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