Tuning the catalytic activity of Ag(110)-supported Fe phthalocyanine in the oxygen reduction reaction

On-Surface Site-Selective Cyclization of Corrole Radicals

Radical cyclization is among the most powerful and versatile reactions for constructing mono- and polycyclic systems, but has, to date, remained unexplored in the context of on-surface synthesis. We report the controlled on-surface synthesis of stable corrole radicals on Ag(111) via site-specific dehydrogenation of a pyrrole N-H bond in the 5,10,15-tris(pentafluoro-phenyl)-corrole triggered by annealing at 330 K under ultrahigh-vacuum conditions. We reveal a thermally induced regioselective cyclization reaction mediated by a radical cascade and resolve the reaction mechanism of the pertaining cyclodefluorination reaction at the single-molecule level. Via intramolecularly resolved probing of the radical-related Kondo signature, we achieve real space visualization of the distribution of the unpaired electron density over specific sites within the corrole radical. Annealing to 550 K initiates intermolecular coupling reactions, producing an extended π-conjugated corrole system.

On-surface manipulation of atom substitution between cobalt phthalocyanine and the Cu(111) substrate

An on-surface atom substation has been manipulated by thermal annealing which transmetalizes CoPc to CuPc for various applications.

Direct Identification and Determination of Conformational Response in Adsorbed Individual Nonplanar Molecular Species Using Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy

In recent years atomic force microscopy (AFM) at highest resolution was widely applied to mostly planar molecules, while its application toward exploring species with structural flexibility and a distinct 3D character remains a challenge. Herein, the scope of noncontact AFM is widened by investigating subtle conformational differences occurring in the well-studied reference systems 2H-TPP and Cu-TPP on Cu(111). Different saddle-shape conformations of both species can be recognized in conventional constant-height AFM images. To unambiguously identify the behavior of specific molecular moieties, we extend data acquisition to distances that are inaccessible with constant-height measurements by introducing vertical imaging, that is, AFM mapping in a plane perpendicular to the sample surface. Making use of this novel technique the vertical displacement of the central Cu atom upon tip-induced conformational switching of Cu-TPP is quantified. Further, for 2H-TPP two drastically different geometries are observed, which are systematically characterized. Our results underscore the importance of structural flexibility in adsorbed molecules with large conformational variability and, consequently, the objective to characterize their geometry at the single-molecule level in real space.

Direct quantitative identification of the "surface trans-effect"

The strong parallels between coordination chemistry and adsorption on metal surfaces, with molecules and ligands forming local bonds to individual atoms within a metal surface, have been established over many years of study. The recently proposed "surface trans-effect" (STE) appears to be a further manifestation of this analogous behaviour, but so far the true nature of the modified molecule-metal surface bonding has been unclear. The STE could play an important role in determining the reactivities of surface-supported metal-organic complexes, influencing the design of systems for future applications. However, the current understanding of this effect is incomplete and lacks reliable structural parameters with which to benchmark theoretical calculations. Using X-ray standing waves, we demonstrate that ligation of ammonia and water to iron phthalocyanine (FePc) on Ag(111) increases the adsorption height of the central Fe atom; dispersion corrected density functional theory calculations accurately model this structural effect. The calculated charge redistribution in the FePc/H2O electronic structure induced by adsorption shows an accumulation of charge along the σ-bonding direction between the surface, the Fe atom and the water molecule, similar to the redistribution caused by ammonia. This apparent σ-donor nature of the observed STE on Ag(111) is shown to involve bonding to the delocalised metal surface electrons rather than local bonding to one or more surface atoms, thus indicating that this is a true surface trans-effect.

Electrochemical dioxygen reduction catalyzed by a (nitro)cobalt(perfluorophthalocyanine) complex and the possibility of a peroxynitro complex intermediate

The (nitro)([Formula: see text],[Formula: see text]-dimethyl-4-aminopyridine) complex of perfluorinated cobalt(III) phthalocyanine Co(III)F16Pc(Me2Npy)(NO[Formula: see text] catalyzes the electrochemical oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in pH 4.0, 7.0, and 10.0 buffer and 0.05 M sulfuric acid solution when deposited on a glassy carbon electrode. Cyclic voltammetry (CV), rotating disk electrode voltammetry (RDE), and rotating ring-disk electrode voltammetry (RRDE) have been used to determine the reduction product as hydrogen peroxide although in concentrations too small to observe by qualitative methods such as oxidation of NaI in solution. The dependence of the values of the peak potentials for the reduction on the pH of the solution and the -log[Me2Npy] are consistent with protonation up to pH 7.6 and pyridine ligand loss during the reduction. The addition of nitrite at 0.1 and 1 M to pH 7.0 solutions in contact with films of CoF16Pc on the glassy carbon electrode decreases the ORR current and shifts the peak potential of the ORR from -0.21 V vs. NHE to -0.19 V vs. NHE. The addition of nitrite at 0.1 and 1 M to films of Co(III)F16Pc(Me2Npy)(NO[Formula: see text] on glassy carbon, however, has no effect on either the current or the potential. While the electrochemical evidence for this proposal is not definitive, modeling has been used to examine the center of reduction in the alternative mechanisms by evaluation of the LUMOs of the hypothetical intermediates in both closed and open shell cases. The formation of five-coordinate Co(II)F16Pc(NO) is proposed to occur initially in the reduction mechanism. It is also possible that O2 reduction takes place at the NO ligand center by way of a nitrogen-bound peroxynitrite intermediate. The [Formula: see text] ligand appears to remain bound during the ORR. Direct coordination of O2 to the metal center requiring a six-coordinate species, Co(III)F16Pc(O[Formula: see text](NO[Formula: see text], Co(II)F16Pc(O[Formula: see text](NO) or [Co(II)F16Pc(O[Formula: see text](NO[Formula: see text]][Formula: see text] and has been considered in DFT modeling studies. The instability of the two-electron reduced, protonation species, [Co(I)F16Pc(NO2OH)][Formula: see text] in its loss of peroxynitrous acid suggests that the reduction of O2 may occur by two one-electron reduction steps rather than a two-electron step.

L2,3-edges absorption spectra of a 2D complex system: a theoretical modelling

Ground state theoretical outcomes pertaining to FePc (I) and FePc(η²-O₂) (II) provide an intimate understanding of the electron transfer pathway ruling the catalytic oxygen reduction reaction of I on Ag(110).

Reversible Tuning of Interfacial and Intramolecular Charge Transfer in Individual MnPc Molecules

The reversible selective hydrogenation and dehydrogenation of individual manganese phthalocyanine (MnPc) molecules has been investigated using photoelectron spectroscopy (PES), low-temperature scanning tunneling microscopy (LT-STM), synchrotron-based near edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) measurements, and supported by density functional theory (DFT) calculations. It is shown conclusively that interfacial and intramolecular charge transfer arises during the hydrogenation process. The electronic energetics upon hydrogenation is identified, enabling a greater understanding of interfacial and intramolecular charge transportation in the field of single-molecule electronics.

Superior Catalytic Activity of Electrochemically Reduced Graphene Oxide Supported Iron Phthalocyanines toward Oxygen Reduction Reaction

Structure and surface properties of supporting materials are of great importance for the catalytic performance of the catalysts. Herein, we prepared the iron phthalocyanine (FePc) functionalized electrochemically reduced graphene oxide (ERGO) by the electrochemical reduction of FePc/GO. The resultant FePc/ERGO exhibits higher catalytic activity toward ORR than that of FePc/graphene. More importantly, the onset potential for ORR at FePc/ERGO positively shifts by 45 mV compared with commercial Pt/C in alkaline media. Besides, FePc/ERGO displays enhanced durability and selectivity toward ORR. The superior catalytic performance of FePc/ERGO for ORR are ascribed to the self-supported structure of ERGO, uniformly morphology and size of FePc nanoparticles.

Hydrogen capture by porphyrins at the TiO2(110) surface

Metal-free porphyrin molecules adsorb on the rutile TiO2(110) surface with their pyrrolic nitrogen atoms atop the O-bridge rows, whereas the iminic nitrogen atoms capture two additional hydrogen atoms. Hydrogenation occurs spontaneously at room temperature, irrespective of the distance of the polypyrrolic macrocycle from the surface, as varied by changing the porphyrin functionalization.

Easy conversion of protein-rich enoki mushroom biomass to a nitrogen-doped carbon nanomaterial as a promising metal-free catalyst for oxygen reduction reaction

The search for low-cost, highly active, and stable catalysts to replace the Pt-based catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) has recently become a topic of interest. Herein, we report a new strategy to design a nitrogen-doped carbon nanomaterial for use as a metal-free ORR catalyst based on facile pyrolysis of protein-rich enoki mushroom (Flammulina velutipes) biomass at 900 °C with carbon nanotubes as a conductive agent and inserting matrix. We found that various forms of nitrogen (nitrile, pyrrolic and graphitic) were incorporated into the carbon molecular skeleton of the product, which exhibited more excellent ORR electrocatalytic activity and better durability in alkaline medium than those in acidic medium. Remarkably, the ORR half-wave potential measured on our material was around 0.81 V in alkaline medium, slightly lower than that on the commercial 20 wt% Pt/C catalyst (0.86 V). Meanwhile, the ORR followed the desired 4-electron transfer mechanism involving the direct reduction pathway. The ORR performance was also markedly better than or at least comparable to the leading results in the literature based on biomass-derived carbon-based catalysts. Besides, we significantly proposed that the graphitic-nitrogen species that is most responsible for the ORR activity can function as the electrocatalytically active center for ORR, and the pyrrolic-nitrogen species can act as an effective promoter for ORR only. The results suggested a promising route based on economical and sustainable fungi biomass towards the large-scale production of valuable carbon nanomaterials as highly active and stable metal-free catalysts for ORR under alkaline conditions.

Immobilised molecular catalysts and the role of the supporting metal substrate

This work demonstrates that immobilising molecular catalysts on metal substrates can attenuate their reactivity. In particular, the reactivity towards molecular oxygen of both ruthenium tetraphenyl porphyrin (Ru-TPP) and its Ti analogue (Ti-TPP) on Ag(111) was studied as benchmark for the interaction strength of such metal-organic complexes with possible reactants. Here, Ru-TPP proves to be completely unreactive and Ti-TPP strongly reactive towards molecular oxygen; along with comparison to work in the literature, this suggests that studies into immobilised catalysts might find fruition in considering species traditionally seen as too strongly interacting.

Mimicking enzymatic active sites on surfaces for energy conversion chemistry

Metal-organic supramolecular chemistry on surfaces has matured to a point where its underlying growth mechanisms are well understood and structures of defined coordination environments of metal atoms can be synthesized in a controlled and reproducible procedure. With surface-confined molecular self-assembly, scientists have a tool box at hand which can be used to prepare structures with desired properties, as for example a defined oxidation number and spin state of the transition metal atoms within the organic matrix. From a structural point of view, these coordination sites in the supramolecular structure resemble the catalytically active sites of metallo-enzymes, both characterized by metal centers coordinated to organic ligands. Several chemical reactions take place at these embedded metal ions in enzymes and the question arises whether these reactions also take place using metal-organic networks as catalysts. Mimicking the active site of metal atoms and organic ligands of enzymes in artificial systems is the key to understanding the selectivity and efficiency of enzymatic reactions. Their catalytic activity depends on various parameters including the charge and spin configuration in the metal ion, but also on the organic environment, which can stabilize intermediate reaction products, inhibits catalytic deactivation, and serves mostly as a transport channel for the reactants and products and therefore ensures the selectivity of the enzyme. Charge and spin on the transition metal in enzymes depend on the one hand on the specific metal element, and on the other hand on its organic coordination environment. These two parameters can carefully be adjusted in surface confined metal-organic networks, which can be synthesized by virtue of combinatorial mixing of building synthons. Different organic ligands with varying functional groups can be combined with several transition metals and spontaneously assemble into ordered networks. The catalytically active metal centers are adequately separated by the linking molecules and constitute promising candiates for heterogeneous catalysts. Recent advances in synthesis, characterization, and catalytic performance of metal-organic networks are highlighted in this Account. Experimental results like structure determination of the networks, charge and spin distribution in the metal centers, and catalytic mechanisms for electrochemical reactions are presented. In particular, we describe the activity of two networks for the oxygen reduction reaction in a combined scanning tunneling microscopy and electrochemical study. The similarities and differences of the networks compared to metallo-enzymes will be discussed, such as the metal surface that operates as a geometric template and concomitantly functions as an electron reservoir, and how this leads to a new class of bioinspired catalysts. The possibility to create functional two-dimensional coordination complexes at surfaces taking inspiration from nature opens up a new route for the design of potent nanocatalyst materials for energy conversion.

Single-molecule imaging of activated nitrogen adsorption on individual manganese phthalocyanine

An atomic-scale understanding of gas adsorption mechanisms on metal-porphyrins or metal-phthalocyanines is essential for their practical application in biological processes, gas sensing, and catalysis. Intensive research efforts have been devoted to the study of coordinative bonding with relatively active small molecules such as CO, NO, NH3, O2, and H2. However, the binding of single nitrogen atoms has never been addressed, which is both of fundamental interest and indeed essential for revealing the elementary chemical binding mechanism in nitrogen reduction processes. Here, we present a simple model system to investigate, at the single-molecule level, the binding of activated nitrogen species on the single Mn atom contained within the manganese phthalocyanine (MnPc) molecule supported on an inert graphite surface. Through the combination of in situ low-temperature scanning tunneling microscopy, scanning tunneling spectroscopy, ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and density functional theory calculations, the active site and the binding configuration between the activated nitrogen species (neutral nitrogen atom) and the Mn center of MnPc are investigated at the atomic scale.

Porphyrins at interfaces

Porphyrins and other tetrapyrrole macrocycles possess an impressive variety of functional properties that have been exploited in natural and artificial systems. Different metal centres incorporated within the tetradentate ligand are key for achieving and regulating vital processes, including reversible axial ligation of adducts, electron transfer, light-harvesting and catalytic transformations. Tailored substituents optimize their performance, dictating their arrangement in specific environments and mediating the assembly of molecular nanoarchitectures. Here we review the current understanding of these species at well-defined interfaces, disclosing exquisite insights into their structural and chemical properties, and also discussing methods by which to manipulate their intramolecular and organizational features. The distinct characteristics arising from the interfacial confinement offer intriguing prospects for molecular science and advanced materials. We assess the role of surface interactions with respect to electronic and physicochemical characteristics, and describe in situ metallation pathways, molecular magnetism, rotation and switching. The engineering of nanostructures, organized layers, interfacial hybrid and bio-inspired systems is also addressed.

Orthogonal insertion of lanthanide and transition-metal atoms in metal-organic networks on surfaces

The orthogonal coordinative properties of tetrapyrrole macrocycles and nitrile ligands have been used in a multistep procedure towards interfacial d-f hetero-bimetallic nanoarchitectures based on a free-base porphyrin derivative functionalized with meso-cyanobiphenylene substituents. Molecular-level scanning tunneling microscopy studies reveal that the porphyrin module alone self-assembles on Ag(111) in a close-packed layer with a square unit cell. Upon co-deposition of Gd atoms, a square-planar motif is formed that reflects the fourfold coordination of CN ligands to the rare-earth centers. The resulting nanoporous network morphology is retained following exposure to a beam of Co atoms, which induces selective porphyrin metalation and ultimately yields a gridlike 2D metallosupramolecular architecture.

Theoretical Modeling of Surface Confined Chiral Nanoporous Networks: Cruciform Molecules as Versatile Building Blocks

Patterning of solid surfaces with functional organic molecules has been a convenient route to fabricate two-dimensional materials with programmed architecture and activities. One example is the chiral nanoporous networks that can be created via controlled self-assembly of star-shaped molecules under 2D confinement. In this contribution we use computer modeling to predict the formation of molecular networks in adsorbed overlayers comprising cruciform molecular building blocks equipped with discrete interaction centers. To that end, we employ the Monte Carlo simulation method combined with a coarse-grained representation of the adsorbed molecules which are treated as collections of interconnected segments. The interaction centers within the molecules are represented by active segments whose number and distribution are adjusted. Our particular focus is on those distributions that produce prochiral molecules able to occur in adsorbed configurations being mirror images of each other (surface enantiomers). We demonstrate that, depending on size, aspect ratio, and intramolecular distribution of active sites, the surface enantiomers can co-crystallize or segregate into extended homochiral domains with largely diversified nanosized cavities. The insights from our theoretical studies can be helpful in designing 2D chiral porous networks with potential applications in enantioselective adsorption and asymmetric heterogeneous catalysis.

Tailoring the structure of two-dimensional self-assembled nanoarchitectures based on ni(ii) -salen building blocks

The synthesis of a series of Ni(II) -salen-based complexes with the general formula of [Ni(H2 L)] (H4 L=R(2) -N,N'-bis[R(1) -5-(4'-benzoic acid)salicylidene]; H4 L1: R(2) =2,3-diamino-2,3-dimethylbutane and R(1) =H; H4 L2: R(2) =1,2-diaminoethane and R(1) =tert-butyl and H4 L3: R(2) =1,2-diaminobenzene and R(1) =tert-butyl) is presented. Their electronic structure and self-assembly was studied. The organic ligands of the salen complexes are functionalized with peripheral carboxylic groups for driving molecular self-assembly through hydrogen bonding. In addition, other substituents, that is, tert-butyl and diamine bridges (2,3-diamino-2,3-dimethylbutane, 1,2-diaminobenzene or 1,2-diaminoethane), were used to tune the two-dimensional (2D) packing of these building blocks. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations reveal that the spatial distribution of the LUMOs is affected by these substituents, in contrast with the HOMOs, which remain unchanged. Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) shows that the three complexes self-assemble into three different 2D nanoarchitectures at the solid-liquid interface on graphite. Two structures are porous and one is close-packed. These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonds in one dimension, while the 2D interaction is governed by van der Waals forces and is tuned by the nature of the substituents, as confirmed by theoretical calculations. As expected, the total dipolar moment is minimized.

Mechanisms for enhanced performance of platinum-based electrocatalysts in proton exchange membrane fuel cells

As a new generation of power sources, fuel cells have shown great promise for application in transportation. However, the expensive catalyst materials, especially the cathode catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), severely limit the widespread commercialization of fuel cells. Therefore, this review article focuses on platinum (Pt)-based electrocatalysts for ORR with better catalytic performance and lower cost. Major breakthroughs in the improvement of activity and durability of electrocatalysts are discussed. Specifically, on one hand, the enhanced activity of Pt has been achieved through crystallographic control, ligand effect, or geometric effect; on the other hand, improved durability of Pt-based cathode catalysts has been realized by means of the incorporation of another noble metal or the morphological control of nanostructures. Furthermore, based on these improvement mechanisms, rationally designed Pt-based nanoparticles are summarized in terms of different synthetic strategies such as wet-chemical synthesis, Pt-skin catalysts, electrochemically dealloyed nanomaterials, and Pt-monolayer deposition. These nanoparticulate electrocatalysts show greatly enhanced catalytic performance towards ORR, aiming not only to outperform the commercial Pt/C, but also to exceed the US Department of Energy 2015 technical target ($30/kW and 5000 h).

Catalytic oxidation of ascorbic acid via copper–polypyridyl complex immobilized on glass

A monolayer of redox-active copper–polypyridyl complexes on glass support was utilized for catalytic oxidation of ascorbic acid showing high performance.

A theoretical study of the L3 pre-edge XAS in Cu(ii) complexes

L_2,3 spectra of Cu(ii) complexes have been simulated by means of time dependent DFT. Besides the agreement between theory and experiment, the adopted approach provided further insights into the use of the Cu(ii) L₃-edge intensity and position to investigate the Cu–ligand symmetry-restricted covalency and the ligand-field strength.

Self-terminating protocol for an interfacial complexation reaction in vacuo by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition

The fabrication and control of coordination compounds or architectures at well-defined interfaces is a thriving research domain with promise for various research areas, including single-site catalysis, molecular magnetism, light-harvesting, and molecular rotors and machines. To date, such systems have been realized either by grafting or depositing prefabricated metal-organic complexes or by protocols combining molecular linkers and single metal atoms at the interface. Here we report a different pathway employing metal-organic chemical vapor deposition, as exemplified by the reaction of meso-tetraphenylporphyrin derivatives on atomistically clean Ag(111) with a metal carbonyl precursor (Ru3(CO)12) under vacuum conditions. Scanning tunneling microscopy and X-ray spectroscopy reveal the formation of a meso-tetraphenylporphyrin cyclodehydrogenation product that readily undergoes metalation after exposure to the Ru-carbonyl precursor vapor and thermal treatment. The self-terminating porphyrin metalation protocol proceeds without additional surface-bound byproducts, yielding a single and thermally robust layer of Ru metalloporphyrins. The introduced fabrication scheme presents a new approach toward the realization of complex metal-organic interfaces incorporating metal centers in unique coordination environments.