Structure of the RAG1 nonamer binding domain with DNA reveals a dimer that mediates DNA synapsis

CDK4 deficiency promotes genomic instability and enhances Myc-driven lymphomagenesis

The G1 kinase CDK4 is amplified or overexpressed in some human tumors and promotes tumorigenesis by inhibiting known tumor suppressors. Here, we report that CDK4 deficiency markedly accelerated lymphoma development in the Eμ-Myc transgenic mouse model of B lymphoma and that silencing or loss of CDK4 augmented the tumorigenic potential of Myc-driven mouse and human B cell lymphoma in transplant models. Accelerated disease in CDK4-deficient Eμ-Myc transgenic mice was associated with rampant genomic instability that was provoked by dysregulation of a FOXO1/RAG1/RAG2 pathway. Specifically, CDK4 phosphorylated and inactivated FOXO1, which prevented FOXO1-dependent induction of Rag1 and Rag2 transcription. CDK4-deficient Eμ-Myc B cells had high levels of the active form of FOXO1 and elevated RAG1 and RAG2. Furthermore, overexpression of RAG1 and RAG2 accelerated lymphoma development in a transplant model, with RAG1/2-expressing tumors exhibiting hallmarks of genomic instability. Evaluation of human tumor samples revealed that CDK4 expression was markedly suppressed, while FOXO1 expression was elevated, in several subtypes of human non-Hodgkin B cell lymphoma. Collectively, these findings establish a context-specific tumor suppressor function for CDK4 that prevents genomic instability, which contributes to B cell lymphoma. Furthermore, our data suggest that targeting CDK4 may increase the risk for the development and/or progression of lymphoma.

Gene expression related to oxidative stress in the heart of mice after intestinal ischemia

Background

Intestinal ischemia-reperfusion is a frequent clinical event associated to injury in distant organs, especially the heart.

Objective

To investigate the gene expression of oxidative stress and antioxidant defense in the heart of inbred mice subjected to intestinal ischemia and reperfusion (IR).

Methods

Twelve mice (C57BL / 6) were assigned to: IR Group (GIR) with 60 minutes of superior mesenteric artery occlusion followed by 60 minutes of reperfusion; Control Group (CG) which underwent anesthesia and laparotomy without IR procedure and was observed for 120 minutes. Intestine and heart samples were processed using the RT-qPCR / Reverse transcriptase-quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction method for the gene expression of 84 genes related to oxidative stress and oxidative defense (Student's "t" test, p < 0.05).

Results

The intestinal tissue (GIR) was noted to have an up-regulation of 65 genes (74.71%) in comparison to normal tissue (CG), and 37 genes (44.04%) were hyper-expressed (greater than three times the threshold allowed by the algorithm). Regarding the remote effects of intestinal I/R in cardiac tissue an up-regulation of 28 genes (33.33%) was seen, but only eight genes (9.52%) were hyper-expressed three times above threshold. Four (7.14%) of these eight genes were expressed in both intestinal and cardiac tissues. Cardiomyocytes with smaller and pyknotic nuclei, rich in heterochromatin with rare nucleoli, indicating cardiac distress, were observed in the GIR.

Conclusion

Intestinal I/R caused a statistically significant over expression of 8 genes associated with oxidative stress in remote myocardial tissue.

Cooperative recruitment of HMGB1 during V(D)J recombination through interactions with RAG1 and DNA

During V(D)J recombination, recombination activating gene (RAG)1 and RAG2 bind and cleave recombination signal sequences (RSSs), aided by the ubiquitous DNA-binding/-bending proteins high-mobility group box protein (HMGB)1 or HMGB2. HMGB1/2 play a critical, although poorly understood, role in vitro in the assembly of functional RAG–RSS complexes, into which HMGB1/2 stably incorporate. The mechanism of HMGB1/2 recruitment is unknown, although an interaction with RAG1 has been suggested. Here, we report data demonstrating only a weak HMGB1–RAG1 interaction in the absence of DNA in several assays, including fluorescence anisotropy experiments using a novel Alexa488-labeled HMGB1 protein. Addition of DNA to RAG1 and HMGB1 in fluorescence anisotropy experiments, however, results in a substantial increase in complex formation, indicating a synergistic binding effect. Pulldown experiments confirmed these results, as HMGB1 was recruited to a RAG1–DNA complex in a RAG1 concentration-dependent manner and, interestingly, without strict RSS sequence specificity. Our finding that HMGB1 binds more tightly to a RAG1–DNA complex over RAG1 or DNA alone provides an explanation for the stable integration of this typically transient architectural protein in the V(D)J recombinase complex throughout recombination. These findings also have implications for the order of events during RAG–DNA complex assembly and for the stabilization of sequence-specific and non-specific RAG1–DNA interactions.

A non-B DNA can replace heptamer of V(D)J recombination when present along with a nonamer: implications in chromosomal translocations and cancer

The RAG (recombination-activating gene) complex is responsible for the generation of antigen receptor diversity by acting as a sequence-specific nuclease. Recent studies have shown that it also acts as a structure-specific nuclease. However, little is known about the factors regulating this activity at the genomic level. We show in the present study that the proximity of a V(D)J nonamer to heteroduplex DNA significantly increases RAG cleavage and binding efficiencies at physiological concentrations of MgCl(2). The position of the nonamer with respect to heteroduplex DNA was important, but not orientation. A spacer length of 18 bp between the nonamer and mismatch was optimal for RAG-mediated DNA cleavage. Mutations to the sequence of the nonamer and deletion of the nonamer-binding domain of RAG1 reinforced the role of the nonamer in the enhancement in RAG cleavage. Interestingly, partial mutation of the nonamer did not significantly reduce RAG cleavage on heteroduplex DNA, suggesting that even cryptic nonamers were sufficient to enhance RAG cleavage. More importantly, we show that the fragile region involved in chromosomal translocations associated with BCL2 (B-cell lymphoma 2) can be cleaved by RAGs following a nonamer-dependent mechanism. Hence our results from the present study suggest that a non-B DNA can replace the heptamer of RSS (recombination signal sequence) when present adjacent to nonamers, explaining the generation of certain chromosomal translocations in lymphoid malignancies.

RAG and HMGB1 create a large bend in the 23RSS in the V(D)J recombination synaptic complexes

During V(D)J recombination, recombination activating gene proteins RAG1 and RAG2 generate DNA double strand breaks within a paired complex (PC) containing two complementary recombination signal sequences (RSSs), the 12RSS and 23RSS, which differ in the length of the spacer separating heptamer and nonamer elements. Despite the central role of the PC in V(D)J recombination, little is understood about its structure. Here, we use fluorescence resonance energy transfer to investigate the architecture of the 23RSS in the PC. Energy transfer was detected in 23RSS substrates in which the donor and acceptor fluorophores flanked the entire RSS, and was optimal under conditions that yield a cleavage-competent PC. The data are most easily explained by a dramatic bend in the 23RSS that reduces the distance between these flanking regions from >160 Å in the linear substrate to <80 Å in the PC. Analysis of multiple fluorescent substrates together with molecular dynamics modeling yielded a model in which the 23RSS adopts a U shape in the PC, with the spacer located centrally within the bend. We propose that this large bend facilitates simultaneous recognition of the heptamer and nonamer, is critical for proper positioning of the active site and contributes to the 12/23 rule.

Characterization of RAG1 and IgM (mu chain) marking development of the immune system in red-spotted grouper (Epinephelus akaara)

In vertebrates, lymphoid-specific recombinase protein encoded by recombination-activating genes (RAG1/2) plays a key role in V(D)J recombination of the T-cell receptor and B-cell receptor. In this study, both RAG1 and the immunoglobulin M (IgM) mu chain were cloned to characterize their potential role in the immune defense at developmental stages of red-spotted grouper, Epinephelus akaara. The open reading frame (ORF) of E. akaara RAG1 included 2778 nucleotide residues encoding a putative protein of 925 amino acids, while the ORF of the IgM mu chain had 1734 nucleotide residues encoding 578 amino acids including variable (VH) and constant (CH1-CH2-CH3-CH4) regions. E. akaara RAG1 was composed of a zinc-binding dimerization domain (ZDD) with a RING finger and zinc finger A (ZFA) in the non-core region and a nonamer-binding region (NBR), with a zinc finger B (ZFB), the central and C-terminal domains in the core region. Tridimensional models of the ZDD and NBR of E. akaara RAG1 were constructed for the first time in fishes, while a 3D model of the E. akaara IgM mu chain was also clarified. The RAG1 mRNA was only detected in the thymus and kidney of 4-month and 1.5-year old groupers using qPCR, and the RAG1 protein was confirmed using western blotting and immunohistochemistry. The IgM mu mRNA was examined in most tissues except the gonad. RAG1 and IgM mu gene expression were observed at 15 dph (days post-hatching) and 23 dph respectively, and increased to a higher level at 37 dph. In addition, this was the first time that the morphology of the E. akaara thymus was characterized. The oval-shaped thymus of 4-month old fish was clearly seen and there were amounts of T lymphocytes present. The results suggested that the immune action of E. akaara was likely to start to develop around 15 dph to 29 dph. The transcript level of the RAG1 gene and the number of lymphocytes in the thymus between 4-month and 1.5-year old groupers indicated that age-related thymic atrophy also occurs in fishes. The similar functional structures of RAG1 and IgM protein between fish and mammals indicated that teleost species share a similar mechanism of V(D)J recombination with higher vertebrates.

Differential reaction kinetics, cleavage complex formation, and nonamer binding domain dependence dictate the structure-specific and sequence-specific nuclease activity of RAGs

During V(D)J recombination, RAG (recombination-activating gene) complex cleaves DNA based on sequence specificity. Besides its physiological function, RAG has been shown to act as a structure-specific nuclease. Recently, we showed that the presence of cytosine within the single-stranded region of heteroduplex DNA is important when RAGs cleave on DNA structures. In the present study, we report that heteroduplex DNA containing a bubble region can be cleaved efficiently when present along with a recombination signal sequence (RSS) in cis or trans configuration. The sequence of the bubble region influences RAG cleavage at RSS when present in cis. We also find that the kinetics of RAG cleavage differs between RSS and bubble, wherein RSS cleavage reaches maximum efficiency faster than bubble cleavage. In addition, unlike RSS, RAG cleavage at bubbles does not lead to cleavage complex formation. Finally, we show that the "nonamer binding region," which regulates RAG cleavage on RSS, is not important during RAG activity in non-B DNA structures. Therefore, in the current study, we identify the possible mechanism by which RAG cleavage is regulated when it acts as a structure-specific nuclease.

Mechanistic basis for RAG discrimination between recombination sites and the off-target sites of human lymphomas

During V(D)J recombination, RAG targeting to correct sites versus off-target sites relies on both DNA sequence features and on chromatin marks. Kinetic analysis using the first highly active full-length purified RAG1/RAG2 complexes has now allowed us to define the important catalytic features of this complex. We found that the overall rate of nicking, but not hairpinning, is critical for the discrimination between correct (optimal) versus off-target (suboptimal) sites used in human T-cell lymphomas, and we show that the C-terminal portion of RAG2 is required for this. This type of kinetic analysis permits us to analyze only the catalytically active RAG complex, in contrast to all other methods, which are unavoidably confounded by mixture with inactive RAG complexes. Moreover, we can distinguish the two major features of any enzymatic catalysis: the binding constant (K(D)) and the catalytic turnover rate, k(cat). Beyond a minimal essential threshold of heptamer quality, further suboptimal heptamer deviations primarily reduce the catalytic rate constant k(cat) for nicking. Suboptimal nonamers reduce not only the binding of the RAG complex to the recombination site (K(D)) but also the catalytic rate constant, consistent with a tight interaction between the RAG complex and substrate during catalysis. These features explain many aspects of RAG physiology and pathophysiology.

V(D)J recombination: mechanisms of initiation

V(D)J recombination assembles immunoglobulin and T cell receptor genes during lymphocyte development through a series of carefully orchestrated DNA breakage and rejoining events. DNA cleavage requires a series of protein-DNA complexes containing the RAG1 and RAG2 proteins and recombination signals that flank the recombining gene segments. In this review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the function and domain organization of the RAG proteins, the composition and structure of RAG-DNA complexes, and the pathways that lead to the formation of these complexes. We also consider the functional significance of RAG-mediated histone recognition and ubiquitin ligase activities, and the role played by RAG in ensuring proper repair of DNA breaks made during V(D)J recombination. Finally, we propose a model for the formation of RAG-DNA complexes that involves anchoring of RAG1 at the recombination signal nonamer and RAG2-dependent surveillance of adjoining DNA for suitable spacer and heptamer sequences.

Elucidating the domain architecture and functions of non-core RAG1: the capacity of a non-core zinc-binding domain to function in nuclear import and nucleic acid binding

Background

The repertoire of the antigen-binding receptors originates from the rearrangement of immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor genetic loci in a process known as V(D)J recombination. The initial site-specific DNA cleavage steps of this process are catalyzed by the lymphoid specific proteins RAG1 and RAG2. The majority of studies on RAG1 and RAG2 have focused on the minimal, core regions required for catalytic activity. Though not absolutely required, non-core regions of RAG1 and RAG2 have been shown to influence the efficiency and fidelity of the recombination reaction.

Results

Using a partial proteolysis approach in combination with bioinformatics analyses, we identified the domain boundaries of a structural domain that is present in the 380-residue N-terminal non-core region of RAG1. We term this domain the Central Non-core Domain (CND; residues 87-217).

Conclusions

We show how the CND alone, and in combination with other regions of non-core RAG1, functions in nuclear localization, zinc coordination, and interactions with nucleic acid. Together, these results demonstrate the multiple roles that the non-core region can play in the function of the full length protein.

Moving DNA around: DNA transposition and retroviral integration

Mobile DNA elements are found in all kingdoms of life, and they employ numerous mechanisms to move within and between genomes. Here we review recent structural advances in understanding two very different families of DNA transposases and retroviral integrases: the DDE and Y1 groups. Even within the DDE family which shares a conserved catalytic domain, there is great diversity in the architecture of the synaptic complexes formed by the intact enzymes with their cognate element-end DNAs. However, recurring themes arise from comparing these complexes, such as stabilization by an intertwined network of protein-DNA and protein-protein contacts, and catalysis in trans, where each active subunit catalyzes the chemical steps on one DNA segment but also binds specific sequences on the other.

Recombination centres and the orchestration of V(D)J recombination

The initiation of V(D)J recombination by the recombination activating gene 1 (RAG1) and RAG2 proteins is carefully orchestrated to ensure that antigen receptor gene assembly occurs in the appropriate cell lineage and in the proper developmental order. Here we review recent advances in our understanding of how DNA binding and cleavage by the RAG proteins are regulated by the chromatin structure and architecture of antigen receptor genes. These advances suggest novel mechanisms for both the targeting and the mistargeting of V(D)J recombination, and have implications for how these events contribute to genome instability and lymphoid malignancy.

Temporal and spatial regulatory functions of the V(D)J recombinase

In developing lymphocytes, V(D)J recombination is subject to tight spatial and temporal regulation. An emerging body of evidence indicates that some of these constraints, particularly with respect to locus specificity and cell cycle phase, are enforced by regulatory cues that converge directly on the RAG proteins themselves. Active chromatin is bound by RAG-2 through a specific histone modification that may serve the recombinase as an allosteric activator as well as a docking site. RAG-1 possesses intrinsic histone ubiquitin ligase activity, suggesting that the recombinase not only responds to chromatin modification but is itself able to modify chromatin. The cyclin A/Cdk2 component of the cell cycle clock triggers periodic destruction of RAG-2, thereby restricting V(D)J recombination to the G0/G1 cell cycle phases. These examples illustrate that the RAG proteins, in addition to their direct actions on DNA, are able to detect and respond to intracellular signals, thereby coordinating recombinase activity with intracellular processes such as cell division and transcription.

DDE transposases: Structural similarity and diversity

DNA transposons are mobile DNA elements that can move from one DNA molecule to another and thereby deliver genetic information into human chromosomes in order to confer a new function or replace a defective gene. This process requires a transposase enzyme. During transposition DD[E/D]-transposases undergo a series of conformational changes. We summarize the structural features of DD[E/D]-transposases for which three-dimensional structures are available and that relate to transposases, which are being developed for use in mammalian cells. Similar to other members of the polynucleotidyl transferase family, the catalytic domains of DD[E/D]-transposases share a common feature: an RNase H-like fold that draws three catalytically active residues, the DDE motif, into close proximity. Beyond this fold, the structures of catalytic domains vary considerably, and the DD[E/D]-transposases display marked structural diversity within their DNA-binding domains. Yet despite such structural variability, essentially the same end result is achieved.

Integrating prokaryotes and eukaryotes: DNA transposases in light of structure

DNA rearrangements are important in genome function and evolution. Genetic material can be rearranged inadvertently during processes such as DNA repair, or can be moved in a controlled manner by enzymes specifically dedicated to the task. DNA transposases comprise one class of such enzymes. These move DNA segments known as transposons to new locations, without the need for sequence homology between transposon and target site. Several biochemically distinct pathways have evolved for DNA transposition, and genetic and biochemical studies have provided valuable insights into many of these. However, structural information on transposases - particularly with DNA substrates - has proven elusive in most cases. On the other hand, large-scale genome sequencing projects have led to an explosion in the number of annotated prokaryotic and eukaryotic mobile elements. Here, we briefly review biochemical and mechanistic aspects of DNA transposition, and propose that integrating sequence information with structural information using bioinformatics tools such as secondary structure prediction and protein threading can lead not only to an additional level of understanding but possibly also to testable hypotheses regarding transposition mechanisms. Detailed understanding of transposition pathways is a prerequisite for the long-term goal of exploiting DNA transposons as genetic tools and as a basis for genetic medical applications.

The in vivo pattern of binding of RAG1 and RAG2 to antigen receptor loci

The critical initial step in V(D)J recombination, binding of RAG1 and RAG2 to recombination signal sequences flanking antigen receptor V, D, and J gene segments, has not previously been characterized in vivo. Here, we demonstrate that RAG protein binding occurs in a highly focal manner to a small region of active chromatin encompassing Ig kappa and Tcr alpha J gene segments and Igh and Tcr beta J and J-proximal D gene segments. Formation of these small RAG-bound regions, which we refer to as recombination centers, occurs in a developmental stage- and lineage-specific manner. Each RAG protein is independently capable of specific binding within recombination centers. While RAG1 binding was detected only at regions containing recombination signal sequences, RAG2 binds at thousands of sites in the genome containing histone 3 trimethylated at lysine 4. We propose that recombination centers coordinate V(D)J recombination by providing discrete sites within which gene segments are captured for recombination.

The origins of the Rag genes--from transposition to V(D)J recombination

The recombination activating genes 1 and 2 (Rag1 and Rag2) encode the key enzyme that is required for the generation of the highly diversified antigen receptor repertoire central to adaptive immunity. The longstanding model proposed that this gene pair was acquired by horizontal gene transfer to explain its abrupt appearance in the vertebrate lineage. The analyses of the enormous amount of sequence data created by many genome sequencing projects now provide the basis for a more refined model as to how this unique gene pair evolved from a selfish DNA transposon into a sophisticated DNA recombinase essential for immunity.

Initial stages of V(D)J recombination: the organization of RAG1/2 and RSS DNA in the postcleavage complex

To obtain structural information on the early stages of V(D)J recombination, we isolated a complex of the core RAG1 and RAG2 proteins with DNA containing a pair of cleaved recombination signal sequences (RSS). Stoichiometric and molecular mass analysis established that this signal-end complex (SEC) contains two protomers each of RAG1 and RAG2. Visualization of the SEC by negative-staining electron microscopy revealed an anchor-shaped particle with approximate two-fold symmetry. Consistent with a parallel arrangement of DNA and protein subunits, the N termini of RAG1 and RAG2 are positioned at opposing ends of the complex, and the DNA chains beyond the RSS nonamer emerge from the same face of the complex, near the RAG1 N termini. These first images of the V(D)J recombinase in its postcleavage state provide a framework for modeling RAG domains and their interactions with DNA.

A zinc site in the C-terminal domain of RAG1 is essential for DNA cleavage activity

The recombination-activating protein, RAG1, a key component of the V(D)J recombinase, binds multiple Zn(2+) ions in its catalytically required core region. However, the role of zinc in the DNA cleavage activity of RAG1 is not well resolved. To address this issue, we determined the stoichiometry of Zn(2+) ions bound to the catalytically active core region of RAG1 under various conditions. Using metal quantitation methods, we determined that core RAG1 can bind up to four Zn(2+) ions. Stripping the full complement of bound Zn(2+) ions to produce apoprotein abrogated DNA cleavage activity. Moreover, even partial removal of zinc-binding equivalents resulted in a significant diminishment of DNA cleavage activity, as compared to holo-Zn(2+) core RAG1. Mutants of the intact core RAG1 and the isolated core RAG1 domains were studied to identify the location of zinc-binding sites. Significantly, the C-terminal domain in core RAG1 binds at least two Zn(2+) ions, with one zinc-binding site containing C902 and C907 as ligands (termed the CC zinc site) and H937 and H942 coordinating a Zn(2+) ion in a separate site (HH zinc site). The latter zinc-binding site is essential for DNA cleavage activity, given that the H937A and H942A mutants were defective in both in vitro DNA cleavage assays and cellular recombination assays. Furthermore, as mutation of the active-site residue E962 reduces Zn(2+) coordination, we propose that the HH zinc site is located in close proximity to the DDE active site. Overall, these results demonstrate that Zn(2+) serves an important auxiliary role for RAG1 DNA cleavage activity. Furthermore, we propose that one of the zinc-binding sites is linked to the active site of core RAG1 directly or indirectly by E962.