Strategies for interfacing inorganic nanocrystals with biological systems based on polymer-coating

A representative set of nanocrystals made of semiconductors, Au and iron oxide, surface-capped with polymer ligands presenting various metal-coordinating groups.

DNA mediated assembly of quantum dot–protoporphyrin IX FRET probes and the effect of FRET efficiency on ROS generation

Quantum dot-protoporphyrin IX FRET probes are assembled through DNA hybridization and the efficiency of FRET and ROS generation was studied.

Bionanotechnology. Colloidal nanoparticles as advanced biological sensors

Colloidal nanoparticle biosensors have received intense scientific attention and offer promising applications in both research and medicine. We review the state of the art in nanoparticle development, surface chemistry, and biosensing mechanisms, discussing how a range of technologies are contributing toward commercial and clinical translation. Recent examples of success include the ultrasensitive detection of cancer biomarkers in human serum and in vivo sensing of methyl mercury. We identify five key materials challenges, including the development of robust mass-scale nanoparticle synthesis methods, and five broader challenges, including the use of simulations and bioinformatics-driven experimental approaches for predictive modeling of biosensor performance. The resultant generation of nanoparticle biosensors will form the basis of high-performance analytical assays, effective multiplexed intracellular sensors, and sophisticated in vivo probes.

Continuing progress toward controlled intracellular delivery of semiconductor quantum dots

The biological applications of luminescent semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) continue to grow at a nearly unabated pace. This growth is driven, in part, by their unique photophysical and physicochemical properties which have allowed them to be used in many different roles in cellular biology including: as superior fluorophores for a wide variety of cellular labeling applications; as active platforms for assembly of nanoscale sensors; and, more recently, as a powerful tool to understand the mechanisms of nanoparticle mediated drug delivery. Given that controlled cellular delivery is at the intersection of all these applications, the latest progress in delivering QDs to cells is examined here. A brief discussion of relevant considerations including the importance of materials preparation and bioconjugation along with the continuing issue of endosomal sequestration is initially provided for context. Methods for the cellular delivery of QDs are then highlighted including those based on passive exposure, facilitated strategies that utilize peptides or polymers and fully active modalities such as electroporation and other mechanically based methods. Following on this, the exciting advent of QD cellular delivery using multiple or combined mechanisms is then previewed. Several recent methods reporting endosomal escape of QD materials in cells are also examined in detail with a focus on the mechanisms by which access to the cytosol is achieved. The ongoing debate over QD cytotoxicity is also discussed along with a perspective on how this field will continue to evolve in the future.

Detecting kallikrein proteolytic activity with peptide-quantum dot nanosensors

Contamination and adulterants in both naturally derived and synthetic drugs pose a serious threat to the worldwide medical community. Developing rapid and sensitive sensors/devices to detect these hazards is thus a continuing need. We describe a hydrophilic semiconductor quantum dot (QD)-peptide Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) nanosensor for monitoring the activity of kallikrein, a key proteolytic enzyme functioning at the initiation of the blood clotting cascade. Kallikrein is also activated by the presence of an oversulfated contaminant recently found in preparations of the drug heparin. Quantitatively monitoring the activity of this enzyme within a nanosensor format has proven challenging because of inherent steric and kinetic considerations. Our sensor is designed around a central QD donor platform which displays controlled ratios of a modular peptidyl substrate. This peptide, in turn, sequentially expresses a terminal oligohistidine motif that mediates the rapid self-assembly of peptides to the QD surface, a linker-spacer sequence to extend the peptide away from the QD surface, a kallikrein recognized-cleavage site, and terminates in an acceptor dye-labeling site. Hydrophilic QDs prepared with compact, zwitterionic surface coatings were first evaluated for their ability to self-assemble the dye-labeled peptide substrates. An optimized two-step protocol was then utilized where high concentrations of peptide were initially digested with purified human kallikrein and samples collected at distinct time points were subsequently diluted into QD-containing solutions for assaying. This sensor provided a quantitative FRET-based readout for monitoring kallikrein activity and comparison to a calibration curve allowed estimation of the relevant Michaelis-Menten kinetic descriptors. The results further suggest that almost any protease should be amenable to a QD-based FRET assay format with appropriate design considerations.

Mechanodelivery of nanoparticles to the cytoplasm of living cells

Nanotechnology has opened up the opportunity to probe, sense, and manipulate the chemical environment of biological systems with an unprecedented level of spatiotemporal control. A major obstacle to the full realization of these novel technologies is the lack of a general, robust, and simple method for the delivery of arbitrary nanostructures to the cytoplasm of intact live cells. Here, we identify a new delivery modality, based on mechanical disruption of the plasma membrane, which efficiently mediates the delivery of nanoparticles to the cytoplasm of mammalian cells. We use two distinct execution modes, two adherent cell lines, and three sizes of semiconducting nanocrystals, or quantum dots, to demonstrate its applicability and effectiveness. As the underlying mechanism is purely physical, we anticipate that such "mechanodelivery" can be generalized to other modes of execution as well as to the cytoplasmic introduction of a structurally diverse array of functional nanomaterials.

The properties and performance of a pH-responsive functionalised nanoparticle

We report fluorescence measurements of three quantum dots (QDs) of different sizes functionalised with the same pH responsive naphthalimide dye. QD size strongly influences energy transfer between dye and dot. Using QDs with an emission maximum of 570 nm gives rise to an interesting transfer of energy from dye to dot, while QDs with an emission maximum at 670 nm give unexpected enhancement of the dye emission. Titrations of QDs with the dye provide a means to establish the loading and hence an approximation of the surface dye density, which varies in proportion to QD size. Quenching effects are observed beyond the loading limit, and may indicate non-specific interactions between the excess dye and the nanoparticle. Attachment of the dye to the QD core is achieved by a thiol/disulfide exchange process that has been interrogated with Raman spectroscopy. The stability of these QD–dye conjugates over time and across a physiological pH range has been investigated to provide an assessment of their performance and robustness.