Rho GTPases and leucocyte-induced endothelial remodelling

Induction of transient macroapertures in endothelial cells through RhoA inhibition by Staphylococcus aureus factors

The GTPase RhoA is a major regulator of the assembly of actin stress fibers and the contractility of the actomyosin cytoskeleton. The epidermal cell differentiation inhibitor (EDIN) and EDIN-like ADP-ribosyltransferases of Staphylococcus aureus catalyze the inactivation of RhoA, producing actin cable disruption. We report that purified recombinant EDIN and EDIN-producing S. aureus provoke large transcellular tunnels in endothelial cells that we have named macroapertures (MAs). These structures open transiently, followed by the appearance of actin-containing membrane waves extending over the aperture. Disruption of actin cables, either directly or indirectly, through rhoA RNAi knockdown also triggers the formation of MAs. Intoxication of endothelial monolayers by EDIN produces a loss of barrier function and provides direct access of the endothelium basement membrane to S. aureus.

N-glycan structures and N-glycosylation sites of mouse soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 revealed by MALDI-TOF and FTICR mass spectrometry

Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) is a heavily N-glycosylated transmembrane protein comprising five extracellular Ig-like domains. The soluble isoform of ICAM-1 (sICAM-1), consisting of its extracellular part, is elevated in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with severe brain trauma. In mouse astrocytes, recombinant mouse sICAM-1 induces the production of the CXC chemokine macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2). MIP-2 induction is glycosylation dependent, as it is strongly enhanced when sICAM-1 carries sialylated, complex-type N-glycans as synthesized by wild-type Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. The present study was aimed at elucidating the N-glycosylation of mouse sICAM-1 expressed in wild-type CHO cells with regard to sialylation, N-glycan profile, and N-glycosylation sites. Ion-exchange chromatography and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry (MS) of the released N-glycans showed that sICAM-1 mostly carried di- and trisialylated complex-type N-glycans with or without one fucose. In some sialylated N-glycans, one N-acetylneuraminic acid was replaced by N-glycolylneuraminic acid, and approximately 4% carried a higher number of sialic acid residues than of antennae. The N-glycosylation sites of mouse sICAM-1 were analyzed by MALDI-Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FTICR)-MS and nanoLC-ESI-FTICR-MS of tryptic digests of mouse sICAM-1 expressed in the Lec1 mutant of CHO cells. All nine consensus sequences for N-glycosylation were found to be glycosylated. These results show that the N-glycans that enhance the MIP-2-inducing activity of mouse sICAM-1 are mostly di- and trisialylated complex-type N-glycans including a small fraction carrying more sialic acid residues than antennae and that the nine N-glycosylation sites of mouse sICAM-1 are all glycosylated.

Neisseria meningitidis infection of human endothelial cells interferes with leukocyte transmigration by preventing the formation of endothelial docking structures

Neisseria meningitidis elicits the formation of membrane protrusions on vascular endothelial cells, enabling its internalization and transcytosis. We provide evidence that this process interferes with the transendothelial migration of leukocytes. Bacteria adhering to endothelial cells actively recruit ezrin, moesin, and ezrin binding adhesion molecules. These molecules no longer accumulate at sites of leukocyte–endothelial contact, preventing the formation of the endothelial docking structures required for proper leukocyte diapedesis. Overexpression of exogenous ezrin or moesin is sufficient to rescue the formation of docking structures on and leukocyte migration through infected endothelial monolayers. Inversely, expression of the dominant-negative NH₂-terminal domain of ezrin markedly inhibits the formation of docking structures and leukocyte diapedesis through noninfected monolayers. Ezrin and moesin thus appear as pivotal endothelial proteins required for leukocyte diapedesis that are titrated away by N. meningitidis. These results highlight a novel strategy developed by a bacterial pathogen to hamper the host inflammatory response by interfering with leukocyte–endothelial cell interaction.

Regulation of chemotaxis by the orchestrated activation of Ras, PI3K, and TOR

Directed cell migration and cell polarity are crucial in many facets of biological processes. Cellular motility requires a complex array of signaling pathways, in which orchestrated cross-talk, a feedback loop, and multi-component signaling recur. Almost every signaling molecule requires several regulatory processes to be functionally activated, and a lack of a signaling molecule often leads to chemotaxis defects, suggesting an integral role for each component in the pathway. We outline our current understanding of the signaling event that regulates chemotaxis with an emphasis on recent findings associated with the Ras, PI3K, and target of rapamycin (TOR) pathways and the interplay of these pathways. Ras, PI3K, and TOR are known as key regulators of cellular growth. Deregulation of those pathways is associated with many human diseases, such as cancer, developmental disorders, and immunological deficiency. Recent studies in yeast, mammalian cells, and Dictyostelium discoideum reveal another critical role of Ras, PI3K, and TOR in regulating the actin cytoskeleton, cell polarity, and cellular movement. These findings shed light on the mechanism by which eukaryotic cells maintain cell polarity and directed cell movement, and also demonstrate that multiple steps in the signal transduction pathway coordinately regulate cell motility.

H-Ras, R-Ras, and TC21 differentially regulate ureteric bud cell branching morphogenesis

The collecting system of the kidney, derived from the ureteric bud (UB), undergoes repetitive bifid branching events during early development followed by a phase of tubular growth and elongation. Although members of the Ras GTPase family control cell growth, differentiation, proliferation, and migration, their role in development of the collecting system of the kidney is unexplored. In this study, we demonstrate that members of the R-Ras family of proteins, R-Ras and TC21, are expressed in the murine collecting system at E13.5, whereas H-Ras is only detected at day E17.5. Using murine UB cells expressing activated H-Ras, R-Ras, and TC21, we demonstrate that R-Ras-expressing cells show increased branching morphogenesis and cell growth, TC21-expressing cells branch excessively but lose their ability to migrate, whereas H-Ras-expressing cells migrated the most and formed long unbranched tubules. These differences in branching morphogenesis are mediated by differential regulation/activation of the Rho family of GTPases and mitogen-activated protein kinases. Because most branching of the UB occurs early in development, it is conceivable that R-Ras and TC-21 play a role in facilitating branching and growth in early UB development, whereas H-Ras might favor cell migration and elongation of tubules, events that occur later in development.

An in vitro model to study the role of endothelial rho GTPases during leukocyte transendothelial migration

Tissue injury induces release of cytokines that stimulate the expression of adhesion receptors in the endothelial wall of neighboring vessels. These endothelial receptors recruit leukocytes from the bloodstream and facilitate their transendothelial migration (TEM) toward the inflamed area. The molecules involved in leukocyte-endothelium interaction and TEM have been studied in vivo and in vitro over the past 20 years. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) are a popular in vitro model to analyze TEM, and have been used to investigate the role of Rho GTPases in this process. Here we describe methods to activate HUVECs, to investigate Rho GTPase-activation by the endothelial adhesion receptor ICAM-1, and to inhibit or activate Rho GTPases using C3 transferase or adenoviruses coding for dominant negative or constitutive active Rho GTPases. Finally, we describe how to image and quantitate leukocyte TEM by digital time-lapse microscopy.