Crystal structure analysis reveals Pseudomonas PilY1 as an essential calcium-dependent regulator of bacterial surface motility

The Pseudomonas aeruginosa AlgZR two-component system coordinates multiple phenotypes

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen that causes a multitude of infections. These infections can occur at almost any site in the body and are usually associated with a breach of the innate immune system. One of the prominent sites where P. aeruginosa causes chronic infections is within the lungs of cystic fibrosis patients. P. aeruginosa uses two-component systems that sense environmental changes to differentially express virulence factors that cause both acute and chronic infections. The P. aeruginosa AlgZR two component system is one of its global regulatory systems that affects the organism's fitness in a broad manner. This two-component system is absolutely required for two P. aeruginosa phenotypes: twitching motility and alginate production, indicating its importance in both chronic and acute infections. Additionally, global transcriptome analyses indicate that it regulates the expression of many different genes, including those associated with quorum sensing, type IV pili, type III secretion system, anaerobic metabolism, cyanide and rhamnolipid production. This review examines the complex AlgZR regulatory network, what is known about the structure and function of each protein, and how it relates to the organism's ability to cause infections.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa AlgR phosphorylation modulates rhamnolipid production and motility

AlgR is a key Pseudomonas aeruginosa transcriptional response regulator required for virulence. AlgR activates alginate production and twitching motility but represses the Rhl quorum-sensing (QS) system, including rhamnolipid production. The role of AlgR phosphorylation is enigmatic, since phosphorylated AlgR (AlgR-P) is required for twitching motility through the fimU promoter but is not required for the activation of alginate production. In order to examine the role of AlgR phosphorylation in vivo, a PAO1 algRD54E strain (with algR encoding a D-to-E change at position 54), which constitutively activates fimU transcription and exhibits twitching motility, was created. A corresponding PAO1 algRD54N strain (with algR encoding a D-to-N change at position 54) that does not activate fimU or twitching motility was compared to PAO1, PAO1 algRD54E, PAO1 ΔalgZ (deletion of the algZ [fimS] gene, encoding a putative histidine kinase), and PAO1 ΔalgR for swarming motility, rhamnolipid production, and rhlA transcription. PAO1 and PAO1 algRD54E produced approximately 2-fold-higher levels of rhamnolipids than PAO1 algRD54N and PAO1 ΔalgZ, thereby indicating that phosphorylated AlgR is required for normal rhamnolipid production. Examination of purified AlgR, AlgR-P, AlgR D54N, and AlgR D54E showed that AlgR-P and AlgR D54E bound preferentially to the fimU and rhlA promoters. Additionally, AlgR-P bound specifically to two sites within the rhlA promoter that were not bound by unphosphorylated AlgR. Taken together, these results indicate that phosphorylated AlgR-P has increased affinity for the rhlA promoter and is required for the coordinate activation of twitching motility, rhamnolipid production, and swarming motility in P. aeruginosa.

Mutation of the conserved calcium-binding motif in Neisseria gonorrhoeae PilC1 impacts adhesion but not piliation

Neisseria gonorrhoeae PilC1 is a member of the PilC family of type IV pilus-associated adhesins found in Neisseria species and other type IV pilus-producing genera. Previously, a calcium-binding domain was described in the C-terminal domains of PilY1 of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and in PilC1 and PilC2 of Kingella kingae. Genetic analysis of N. gonorrhoeae revealed a similar calcium-binding motif in PilC1. To evaluate the potential significance of this calcium-binding region in N. gonorrhoeae, we produced recombinant full-length PilC1 and a PilC1 C-terminal domain fragment. We show that, while alterations of the calcium-binding motif disrupted the ability of PilC1 to bind calcium, they did not grossly affect the secondary structure of the protein. Furthermore, we demonstrate that both full-length wild-type PilC1 and full-length calcium-binding-deficient PilC1 inhibited gonococcal adherence to cultured human cervical epithelial cells, unlike the truncated PilC1 C-terminal domain. Similar to PilC1 in K. kingae, but in contrast to the calcium-binding mutant of P. aeruginosa PilY1, an equivalent mutation in N. gonorrhoeae PilC1 produced normal amounts of pili. However, the N. gonorrhoeae PilC1 calcium-binding mutant still had partial defects in gonococcal adhesion to ME180 cells and genetic transformation, which are both essential virulence factors in this human pathogen. Thus, we conclude that calcium binding to PilC1 plays a critical role in pilus function in N. gonorrhoeae.

Longistatin, an EF-hand Ca2+-binding protein from vector tick: identification, purification, and characterization

EF-hand Ca(2+)-binding motif, a structural component of the EF-hand protein, functions as a calcium sensor and/or buffer in the cytosol of the cell. However, in a few exceptional cases, the EF-hand proteins are secreted from cells and play crucial roles extracellularly. We have identified longistatin, an EF-hand Ca(2+)-binding protein, from the salivary glands of the tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis. Longistatin possesses an N-terminal sequence of unknown structure and two EF-hand motifs in the C-terminus, which conserve a calmodulin-like canonical structure. Longistatin shows distinct changes in its migration during electrophoresis through SDS-PAGE gel containing calcium or ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA). Both recombinant and endogenous forms of longistatin can be stained with rutheninum red, demonstrating that longistatin is a Ca(2+)-binding protein.

Calcium binding properties of the Kingella kingae PilC1 and PilC2 proteins have differential effects on type IV pilus-mediated adherence and twitching motility

Kingella kingae is an emerging bacterial pathogen that is being recognized increasingly as an important etiology of septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, and bacteremia, especially in young children. The pathogenesis of K. kingae disease begins with bacterial adherence to respiratory epithelium, which is dependent on type IV pili and is influenced by two PilC-like proteins called PilC1 and PilC2. Production of either PilC1 or PilC2 is necessary for K. kingae piliation and bacterial adherence. In this study, we set out to further investigate the role of PilC1 and PilC2 in type IV pilus-associated phenotypes. We found that PilC1 contains a functional 9-amino-acid calcium-binding (Ca-binding) site with homology to the Pseudomonas aeruginosa PilY1 Ca-binding site and that PilC2 contains a functional 12-amino-acid Ca-binding site with homology to the human calmodulin Ca-binding site. Using targeted mutagenesis to disrupt the Ca-binding sites, we demonstrated that the PilC1 and PilC2 Ca-binding sites are dispensable for piliation. Interestingly, we showed that the PilC1 site is necessary for twitching motility and adherence to Chang epithelial cells, while the PilC2 site has only a minor influence on twitching motility and no influence on adherence. These findings establish key differences in PilC1 and PilC2 function in K. kingae and provide insights into the biology of the PilC-like family of proteins.

RapA2 is a calcium-binding lectin composed of two highly conserved cadherin-like domains that specifically recognize Rhizobium leguminosarum acidic exopolysaccharides

In silico analyses have revealed a conserved protein domain (CHDL) widely present in bacteria that has significant structural similarity to eukaryotic cadherins. A CHDL domain was shown to be present in RapA, a protein that is involved in autoaggregation of Rhizobium cells, biofilm formation, and adhesion to plant roots as shown by us and others. Structural similarity to cadherins suggested calcium-dependent oligomerization of CHDL domains as a mechanistic basis for RapA action. Here we show by circular dichroism spectroscopy, light scattering, isothermal titration calorimetry, and other methods that RapA2 from Rhizobium leguminosarum indeed exhibits a cadherin-like β-sheet conformation and that its proper folding and stability are dependent on the binding of one calcium ion per protein molecule. By further in silico analysis we also reveal that RapA2 consists of two CHDL domains and expand the range of CHDL-containing proteins in bacteria and archaea. However, light scattering assays at various concentrations of added calcium revealed that RapA2 formed neither homo-oligomers nor hetero-oligomers with RapB (a distinct CHDL protein), indicating that RapA2 does not mediate cellular interactions through a cadherin-like mechanism. Instead, we demonstrate that RapA2 interacts specifically with the acidic exopolysaccharides (EPSs) produced by R. leguminosarum in a calcium-dependent manner, sustaining a role of these proteins in the development of the biofilm matrix made of EPS. Because EPS binding by RapA2 can only be attributed to its two CHDL domains, we propose that RapA2 is a calcium-dependent lectin and that CHDL domains in various bacterial and archaeal proteins confer carbohydrate binding activity to these proteins.

Surface organelles assembled by secretion systems of Gram-negative bacteria: diversity in structure and function

Gram-negative bacteria express a wide variety of organelles on their cell surface. These surface structures may be the end products of secretion systems, such as the hair-like fibers assembled by the chaperone/usher (CU) and type IV pilus pathways, which generally function in adhesion to surfaces and bacterial-bacterial and bacterial-host interactions. Alternatively, the surface organelles may be integral components of the secretion machinery itself, such as the needle complex and pilus extensions formed by the type III and type IV secretion systems, which function in the delivery of bacterial effectors inside host cells. Bacterial surface structures perform functions critical for pathogenesis and have evolved to withstand forces exerted by the external environment and cope with defenses mounted by the host immune system. Given their essential roles in pathogenesis and exposed nature, bacterial surface structures also make attractive targets for therapeutic intervention. This review will describe the structure and function of surface organelles assembled by four different Gram-negative bacterial secretion systems: the CU pathway, the type IV pilus pathway, and the type III and type IV secretion systems.

Minor pilins of the type IV pilus system participate in the negative regulation of swarming motility

Pseudomonas aeruginosa exhibits distinct surface-associated behaviors, including biofilm formation, flagellum-mediated swarming motility, and type IV pilus-driven twitching. Here, we report a role for the minor pilins, PilW and PilX, components of the type IV pilus assembly machinery, in the repression of swarming motility. Mutating either the pilW or pilX gene alleviates the inhibition of swarming motility observed for strains with elevated levels of the intracellular signaling molecule cyclic di-GMP (c-di-GMP) due to loss of BifA, a c-di-GMP-degrading phosphodiesterase. Blocking PilD peptidase-mediated processing of PilW and PilX renders the unprocessed proteins defective for pilus assembly but still functional in c-di-GMP-mediated swarming repression, indicating our ability to separate these functions. Strains with mutations in pilW or pilX also fail to exhibit the increase in c-di-GMP levels observed when wild-type (WT) or bifA mutant cells are grown on a surface. We also provide data showing that c-di-GMP levels are increased upon PilY1 overexpression in surface-grown cells and that this c-di-GMP increase does not occur in the absence of the SadC diguanylate cyclase. Increased levels of endogenous PilY1, PilX, and PilA are observed when cells are grown on a surface compared to liquid growth, linking surface growth and enhanced signaling via SadC. Our data support a model wherein PilW, PilX, and PilY1, in addition to their role(s) in type IV pilus biogenesis, function to repress swarming via modulation of intracellular c-di-GMP levels. By doing so, these pilus assembly proteins contribute to P. aeruginosa's ability to coordinately regulate biofilm formation with its two surface motility systems.

Basis for the essentiality of H-NS family members in Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Members of the histone-like nucleoid-structuring (H-NS) family of proteins have been shown to play important roles in silencing gene expression and in nucleoid compaction. In Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the two H-NS family members MvaT and MvaU are thought to bind the same AT-rich regions of the chromosome and function coordinately to control a common set of genes. Here we present evidence that the loss of both MvaT and MvaU cannot be tolerated because it results in the production of Pf4 phage that superinfect and kill cells or inhibit their growth. Using a ClpXP-based protein depletion system in combination with transposon mutagenesis, we identify mutants of P. aeruginosa that can tolerate the depletion of MvaT in an ΔmvaU mutant background. Many of these mutants contain insertions in genes encoding components, assembly factors, or regulators of type IV pili or contain insertions in genes of the prophage Pf4. We demonstrate that cells that no longer produce type IV pili or that no longer produce the replicative form of the Pf4 genome can tolerate the loss of both MvaT and MvaU. Furthermore, we show that the loss of both MvaT and MvaU results in an increase in expression of Pf4 genes and that cells that cannot produce type IV pili are resistant to infection by Pf4 phage. Our findings suggest that type IV pili are the receptors for Pf4 phage and that the essential activities of MvaT and MvaU are to repress the expression of Pf4 genes.

Calcium increases Xylella fastidiosa surface attachment, biofilm formation, and twitching motility

Xylella fastidiosa is a plant-pathogenic bacterium that forms biofilms inside xylem vessels, a process thought to be influenced by the chemical composition of xylem sap. In this work, the effect of calcium on the production of X. fastidiosa biofilm and movement was analyzed under in vitro conditions. After a dose-response study with 96-well plates using eight metals, the strongest increase of biofilm formation was observed when medium was supplemented with at least 1.0 mM CaCl(2). The removal of Ca by extracellular (EGTA, 1.5 mM) and intracellular [1,2-bis(o-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid acetoxymethyl ester (BAPTA/AM), 75 μM] chelators reduced biofilm formation without compromising planktonic growth. The concentration of Ca influenced the force of adhesion to the substrate, biofilm thickness, cell-to-cell aggregation, and twitching motility, as shown by assays with microfluidic chambers and other assays. The effect of Ca on attachment was lost when cells were treated with tetracycline, suggesting that Ca has a metabolic or regulatory role in cell adhesion. A double mutant (fimA pilO) lacking type I and type IV pili did not improve biofilm formation or attachment when Ca was added to the medium, while single mutants of type I (fimA) or type IV (pilB) pili formed more biofilm under conditions of higher Ca concentrations. The concentration of Ca in the medium did not significantly influence the levels of exopolysaccharide produced. Our findings indicate that the role of Ca in biofilm formation may be related to the initial surface and cell-to-cell attachment and colonization stages of biofilm establishment, which rely on critical functions by fimbrial structures.

Genes that influence swarming motility and biofilm formation in Variovorax paradoxus EPS

Background

Variovorax paradoxus is an aerobic soil bacterium associated with important biodegradative processes in nature. We use V. paradoxus EPS to study multicellular behaviors on surfaces.

Methodology

We recovered flanking sequence from 123 clones in a Tn5 mutant library, with insertions in 29 different genes, selected based on observed surface behavior phenotypes. We identified three genes, Varpa_4665, Varpa_4680, and Varpa_5900, for further examination. These genes were cloned into pBBR1MCS2 and used to complement the insertion mutants. We also analyzed expression of Varpa_4680 and Varpa_5900 under different growth conditions by qPCR.

Results

The 29 genes we identified had diverse predicted functions, many in exopolysaccharide synthesis. Varpa_4680, the most commonly recovered insertion site, encodes a putative N-acetyl-L-fucosamine transferase similar to WbuB. Expression of this gene in trans complemented the mutant fully. Several unique insertions were identified in Varpa_5900, which is one of three predicted pilY1 homologs in the EPS genome. No insertions in the two other putative pilY1 homologs present in the genome were identified. Expression of Varpa_5900 altered the structure of the wild type swarm, as did disruption of the chromosomal gene. The swarming phenotype was complemented by expression of Varpa_5900 from a plasmid, but biofilm formation was not restored. Both Varpa_4680 and Varpa_5900 transcripts were downregulated in biofilms and upregulated during swarming when compared to log phase culture. We identified a putative two component system (Varpa_4664-4665) encoding a response regulator (shkR) and a sensor histidine kinase (shkS), respectively. Biofilm formation increased and swarming was strongly delayed in the Varpa_4665 (shkS) mutant. Complementation of shkS restored the biofilm phenotype but swarming was still delayed. Expression of shkR in trans suppressed biofilm formation in either genetic background, and partially restored swarming in the mutant.

Conclusions

The data presented here point to complex regulation of these surface behaviors.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa PilY1 binds integrin in an RGD- and calcium-dependent manner

PilY1 is a type IV pilus (tfp)-associated protein from the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa that shares functional similarity with related proteins in infectious Neisseria and Kingella species. Previous data have shown that PilY1 acts as a calcium-dependent pilus biogenesis factor necessary for twitching motility with a specific calcium binding site located at amino acids 850–859 in the 1,163 residue protein. In addition to motility, PilY1 is also thought to play an important role in the adhesion of P. aeruginosa tfp to host epithelial cells. Here, we show that PilY1 contains an integrin binding arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) motif located at residues 619–621 in the PilY1 from the PAK strain of P. aeruginosa; this motif is conserved in the PilY1s from the other P. aeruginosa strains of known sequence. We demonstrate that purified PilY1 binds integrin in vitro in an RGD-dependent manner. Furthermore, we identify a second calcium binding site (amino acids 600–608) located ten residues upstream of the RGD. Eliminating calcium binding from this site using a D608A mutation abolished integrin binding; in contrast, a calcium binding mimic (D608K) preserved integrin binding. Finally, we show that the previously established PilY1 calcium binding site at 851–859 also impacts the protein's association with integrin. Taken together, these data indicate that PilY1 binds to integrin in an RGD- and calcium-dependent manner in vitro. As such, P. aeruginosa may employ these interactions to mediate host epithelial cell binding in vivo.

New structural and functional contexts of the Dx[DN]xDG linear motif: insights into evolution of calcium-binding proteins

Binding of calcium ions (Ca²⁺) to proteins can have profound effects on their structure and function. Common roles of calcium binding include structure stabilization and regulation of activity. It is known that diverse families – EF-hands being one of at least twelve – use a Dx[DN]xDG linear motif to bind calcium in near-identical fashion. Here, four novel structural contexts for the motif are described. Existing experimental data for one of them, a thermophilic archaeal subtilisin, demonstrate for the first time a role for Dx[DN]xDG-bound calcium in protein folding. An integrin-like embedding of the motif in the blade of a β-propeller fold – here named the calcium blade – is discovered in structures of bacterial and fungal proteins. Furthermore, sensitive database searches suggest a common origin for the calcium blade in β-propeller structures of different sizes and a pan-kingdom distribution of these proteins. Factors favouring the multiple convergent evolution of the motif appear to include its general Asp-richness, the regular spacing of the Asp residues and the fact that change of Asp into Gly and vice versa can occur though a single nucleotide change. Among the known structural contexts for the Dx[DN]xDG motif, only the calcium blade and the EF-hand are currently found intracellularly in large numbers, perhaps because the higher extracellular concentration of Ca²⁺ allows for easier fixing of newly evolved motifs that have acquired useful functions. The analysis presented here will inform ongoing efforts toward prediction of similar calcium-binding motifs from sequence information alone.

Architecture of the type II secretion and type IV pilus machineries

Motility and protein secretion are key processes contributing to bacterial virulence. A wealth of phylogenetic, biochemical and structural evidence support the hypothesis that the widely distributed type IV pilus (T4P) system, involved in twitching motility, and the type II secretion (T2S) system, involved in exoprotein release, are descended from a common progenitor. Both are composed of dedicated but dynamic assemblages, which have been proposed to function through alternate polymerization and depolymerization or degradation of pilin-like subunits. While ongoing studies aimed at understanding the details of assembly and function of these systems are leading to new insights, there are still large knowledge gaps with respect to several fundamental aspects of their biology, including the localization and stoichiometry of critical assembly components, and the nature of their interactions. This article highlights recent advances in understanding the architectures of the T4P and T2S systems, and the organization of their inner and outer membrane components. As structural data accumulates, it is becoming increasingly apparent that even components with little-to-no sequence similarity have similar folds, further supporting the idea that both systems function by a similar mechanism.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa minor pilins are incorporated into type IV pili

Type IV pili are long filamentous appendages required for both adhesion and a unique form of motility known as twitching. Twitching motility involves the extension and retraction of the pilus and requires a number of gene products, including five conserved pilin-like proteins of unknown function (FimU, PilV, PilW, PilX, and PilE in Pseudomonas aeruginosa), termed 'minor' pilins. Maintenance of a specific stoichiometric ratio among the minor pilins was important for function, as loss or overexpression of any component impaired motility. Disruption of individual minor pilin genes, or of the AlgR positive regulator of minor pilin operon expression in a strain where pilus retraction was blocked by inactivation of the PilT retraction ATPase, revealed that pili were produced, although levels of piliation were reduced relative to pilT positive control. Differences in the levels of piliation of complemented strains pointed to specific roles for each protein in the assembly process, with FimU and PilX being implicated as key promoters of pilus assembly on the cell surface. Using specific antibodies for each protein, we showed that the minor pilins FimU, PilV, PilW, PilX, and PilE were processed by the pre-pilin peptidase PilD and incorporated throughout the growing pilus filament. This is the first study to demonstrate that the minor pilins, conserved among bacteria expressing type IVa pili, are incorporated into the fiber and support a role for them in the initiation, but not termination, of pilus assembly.

Cyclic-di-GMP-mediated repression of swarming motility by Pseudomonas aeruginosa: the pilY1 gene and its impact on surface-associated behaviors

The intracellular signaling molecule cyclic-di-GMP (c-di-GMP) has been shown to influence surface-associated behaviors of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, including biofilm formation and swarming motility. Previously, we reported a role for the bifA gene in the inverse regulation of biofilm formation and swarming motility. The bifA gene encodes a c-di-GMP-degrading phosphodiesterase (PDE), and the Delta bifA mutant exhibits increased cellular pools of c-di-GMP, forms hyperbiofilms, and is unable to swarm. In this study, we isolated suppressors of the Delta bifA swarming defect. Strains with mutations in the pilY1 gene, but not in the pilin subunit pilA gene, show robust suppression of the swarming defect of the Delta bifA mutant, as well as its hyperbiofilm phenotype. Despite the ability of the pilY1 mutation to suppress all the c-di-GMP-related phenotypes, the global pools of c-di-GMP are not detectably altered in the Delta bifA Delta pilY1 mutant relative to the Delta bifA single mutant. We also show that enhanced expression of the pilY1 gene inhibits swarming motility, and we identify residues in the putative VWA domain of PilY1 that are important for this phenotype. Furthermore, swarming repression by PilY1 specifically requires the diguanylate cyclase (DGC) SadC, and epistasis analysis indicates that PilY1 functions upstream of SadC. Our data indicate that PilY1 participates in multiple surface behaviors of P. aeruginosa, and we propose that PilY1 may act via regulation of SadC DGC activity but independently of altering global c-di-GMP levels.

Infection of human mucosal tissue by Pseudomonas aeruginosa requires sequential and mutually dependent virulence factors and a novel pilus-associated adhesin

Tissue damage predisposes humans to life-threatening disseminating infection by the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Bacterial adherence to host tissue is a critical first step in this infection process. It is well established that P. aeruginosa attachment to host cells involves type IV pili (TFP), which are retractile surface fibres. The molecular details of attachment and the identity of the bacterial adhesin and host receptor remain controversial. Using a mucosal epithelium model system derived from primary human tissue, we show that the pilus-associated protein PilY1 is required for bacterial adherence. We establish that P. aeruginosa preferentially binds to exposed basolateral host cell surfaces, providing a mechanistic explanation for opportunistic infection of damaged tissue. Further, we demonstrate that invasion and fulminant infection of intact host tissue requires the coordinated and mutually dependent action of multiple bacterial factors, including pilus fibre retraction and the host cell intoxication system, termed type III secretion. Our findings offer new and important insights into the complex interactions between a pathogen and its human host and provide compelling evidence that PilY1 serves as the principal P. aeruginosa adhesin for human tissue and that it specifically recognizes a host receptor localized or enriched on basolateral epithelial cell surfaces.