Localization of Ca2+ extrusion sites in pancreatic acinar cells

Differential involvement of vacuolar H(+)-ATPase in the refilling of thapsigargin- and agonist-mobilized Ca(2+) stores

Our objective was to evaluate the role of vacuolar H(+)-ATPase and proton gradients in the refilling of Ca(2+) stores in fura-2-loaded pancreatic acinar cells. Once depleted with a high level of ACh, the Ca(2+) stores were replenished with a Ca(2+)-containing solution. The degree of refilling was estimated with a second release in response to either ACh (ACh-releasable store) or thapsigargin (thapsigargin-releasable store), a specific inhibitor of the endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) pumps. Both the protonophore nigericin and folimycin, a specific inhibitor of the vacuolar H(+)-ATPase, reduced reuptake into the ACh-mobilized stores but not into the thapsigargin-releasable pools. These treatments effectively dissipated the subcellular pH gradients (revealed by confocal observation of the distribution of a marker for acidic compartments), and did not impair the [Ca(2+)](i) response to ACh in control cells. Our results indicate that thapsigargin and ACh release heterogeneous Ca(2+) stores which are differently operated by vacuolar proton ATPase.

Polarity in intracellular calcium signaling

The concentration of free calcium ions (Ca(2+)) in the cytosol is precisely regulated and can be rapidly increased in response to various types of stimuli. Since Ca(2+) can be used to control different processes in the same cell, the spatial organization of cytosolic Ca(2+) signals is of considerable importance. Polarized cells have advantages for Ca(2+) studies since localized signals can be related to particular organelles. The pancreatic acinar cell is well-characterized with a clearly polarized structure and function. Since the discovery of the intracellular Ca(2+)-releasing function of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3)) in the pancreas in the early 1980s, this cell has become a popular study object and is now one of the best-characterized with regard to Ca(2+) signaling properties. Stimulation of pancreatic acinar cells with the neurotransmitter acetylcholine or the hormone cholecystokinin evokes Ca(2+) signals that are either local or global, depending on the agonist concentration and the length of the stimulation period. The nature of the Ca(2+) transport events across the basal and apical plasma membranes as well as the involvement of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the nucleus, the mitochondria, and the secretory granules in Ca(2+) signal generation and termination have become much clearer in recent years.

Hormone-induced secretory and nuclear translocation of calmodulin: oscillations of calmodulin concentration with the nucleus as an integrator

Many important enzyme activities are regulated by Ca2+-dependent interactions with calmodulin (CaM). Some of the most important targets for CaM action are in the nucleus, and Ca2+-dependent CaM translocation into this organelle has been reported. Hormone-evoked cytosolic Ca2+ signals occur physiologically as oscillations, but, so far, oscillations in CaM concentration have not been described. We loaded fluorescent-labeled CaM into pancreatic acinar cells and monitored the fluorescence in various regions by confocal microscopy. Sustained high concentrations of the hormone cholecystokinin or the neurotransmitter acetylcholine evoked a transient movement of cytosolic CaM from the basal nonnuclear area into the secretory granule region and, thereafter, a more substantial and prolonged translocation of CaM into the nucleoplasm. About 50% of the CaM that bound Ca2+ translocated. At a lower hormone concentration, evoking Ca2+ oscillations, regular spikes of increased CaM concentration were seen in the secretory granule region with mirror image spikes of decreased CaM concentration in the basal nonnuclear region. The nucleus was able to integrate the Ca2+ spike-evoked pulses of CaM translocation into a sustained elevation of the nucleoplasmic concentration of this protein.

Termination of cytosolic Ca2+ signals: Ca2+ reuptake into intracellular stores is regulated by the free Ca2+ concentration in the store lumen

The mechanism by which agonist-evoked cytosolic Ca2+ signals are terminated has been investigated. We measured the Ca2+ concentration inside the endoplasmic reticulum store of pancreatic acinar cells and monitored the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration by whole-cell patch-clamp recording of the Ca2+-sensitive currents. When the cytosolic Ca2+ concentration was clamped at the resting level by a high concentration of a selective Ca2+ buffer, acetylcholine evoked the usual depletion of intracellular Ca2+ stores, but without increasing the Ca2+-sensitive currents. Removal of acetylcholine allowed thapsigargin-sensitive Ca2+ reuptake into the stores, and this process stopped when the stores had been loaded to the pre-stimulation level. The apparent rate of Ca2+ reuptake decreased steeply with an increase in the Ca2+ concentration in the store lumen and it is this negative feedback on the Ca2+ pump that controls the Ca2+ store content. In the absence of a cytoplasmic Ca2+ clamp, acetylcholine removal resulted in a rapid return of the elevated cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration to the pre-stimulation resting level, which was attained long before the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ store had been completely refilled. We conclude that control of Ca2+ reuptake by the Ca2+ concentration inside the intracellular store allows precise Ca2+ signal termination without interfering with store refilling.

Distribution of Ca2+ extrusion sites on the mouse pancreatic acinar cell surface

The localizations of Ca2+ extrusion sites in mouse pancreatic acinar cells during elevation of the intracellular free calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) have been studied. During an agonist stimulated calcium elevation as well as when intracellular calcium is released from a 'caged compound', Ca2+ is primarily extruded from the apical secretory pole of the cells in spite of different spatial patterns of [Ca2+]i different sources of Ca2+, and the presence or absence of agonist. This is most likely due to a relatively high density of calcium pumps in the secretory granule region, although it could be explained by calcium pumps in this part of the cell having different characteristics from those in the basal membrane. The intensity of Ca2+ extrusion in the apical secretory pole is such that substantial (several millimoles per litre) changes of the free calcium concentration in the lumen of the acinus can occur during agonist stimulation.

Polarized expression of Ca2+ pumps in pancreatic and salivary gland cells. Role in initiation and propagation of [Ca2+]i waves

The present study was aimed at localization of plasma membrane (PMCA) and intracellular (SERCA) Ca2+ pumps and characterizing their role in initiation and propagation of Ca2+ waves. Specific and polarized expression of Ca2+ pumps was observed in all epithelial cells examined. Immunolocalization revealed expression of PMCA in both the basolateral and luminal membranes of all cell types. SERCA2a appeared to be expressed in the luminal pole, whereas SERCA2b was expressed in the basal pole and the nuclear envelope of pancreatic acini. Interestingly, SERCA2b was found in the luminal pole of submandibular salivary gland acinar and duct cells. These cells expressed SERCA3 in the basal pole. To examine the significance of the polarized expression of SERCA and perhaps PMCA pumps in secretory cells, we compared the effect of inhibition of SERCA pumps with thapsigargine and partial Ca2+ release with ionomycin on Ca2+ release evoked by agonists and Ca2+ uptake induced by antagonists. Despite their polarized expression, Ca2+ uptake by SERCA pumps and Ca2+ efflux by PMCA resulted in uniform reduction in [Ca2+]i. Surprisingly, inhibition of the SERCA pumps, but not Ca2+ release by ionomycin, eliminated the distinct initiation sites and propagated Ca2+ waves, leading to a uniform increase in [Ca2+]i. In addition, inhibition of SERCA pumps reduced the rate of Ca2+ release from internal stores. The implication of these findings to rates of Ca2+ diffusion in the cytosol, compartmentalization of Ca2+ signaling complexes, and mechanism of Ca2+ wave propagation are discussed.

Short pulses of acetylcholine stimulation induce cytosolic Ca2+ signals that are excluded from the nuclear region in pancreatic acinar cells

We have investigated the spreading of cytosolic Ca2+ signals generated by acetylcholine stimulation (using either microionophoresis or pressure application) of isolated pancreatic acinar cells (or small cell clusters) using confocal microscopy of Ca2+-sensitive fluorescence (fura red). We have been particularly interested in the effects of short vigorous pulses of acetylcholine (ACh) stimulation since, in the pancreas, ACh secreted from nerve endings is quickly eliminated by the action of ACh esterase. We focused on three regions: the secretory pole (secretory granule area), the nucleus and the basal area outside the nucleus. The nuclei were visualized by using the specific nuclear stain Hoechst 33342. With ionophoretic application, a long-lasting stimulation with ACh (10 s and longer) induces large Ca2+ transients of similar amplitude in all the three selected regions of the cell. Short applications (about 3 s) of ACh result in a Ca2+ rise in the secretory pole, whereas no changes in cytoplasmic Ca2+ were detected in the basal, nonnuclear region or in the nucleus. We found that at the peak of such localised Ca2+ responses, evoked either by ACh ionophoresis or pressure application, significant Ca2+ concentration gradients (up to 400 nM/microm) can be established along the line connecting the secretory pole with the nucleus. In some experiments slightly longer applications (about 5 s) of ACh produce Ca2+ transients in both the secretory region and in the basal, nonnuclear regions of the cells, whereas the nuclear [Ca2+] remained largely unaffected. Estimation of the ACh concentration in the vicinity of the cell under investigation indicated that values of about 1 microM were attained in the pressure application experiments. These results show directly that the nucleus of pancreatic acinar cells can be effectively protected from relatively large Ca2+ transients generated in the secretory pole of pancreatic acinar cells by short pulses of near-maximal ACh concentrations. This indicates that calcium-dependent secretion (both fluid and digestive enzymes) can occur without changes of the intranuclear [Ca2+] and consequently without activation of numerous calcium dependent nuclear processes.

Decrease of acidity inside zymogen granules inhibits acetylcholine- or inositol trisphosphate-evoked cytosolic Ca2+ spiking in pancreatic acinar cells

In isolated pancreatic acinar cells application of the proton-potassium ionophore nigericin or the proton-sodium ionophore monensin led to a reduction of acidity inside the zymogen granules which could be visualized in an imaging system by a rapid reduction in the intragranular quinacrine fluorescence. Cytosolic Ca2+ spikes in response to acetylcholine stimulation or intracellular inositol trisphosphate application were assessed by recording Ca2+ -sensitive ionic currents in the patch clamp whole-cell recording configuration. Both nigericin and monensin evoked marked reductions in frequency and amplitude of spikes and in many experiments abolished spiking altogether. The Ca2+ -sensitive membrane currents could still be activated after nigericin or monensin treatment since subsequent application of the Ca2+ ionophore ionomycin evoked a large current response. The decrease in intragranular acidity would appear to inhibit intracellular Ca2+ release perhaps due to a reduction in the free intragranular Ca2+ concentration.

Spatial domains of Ca2+ signaling in secretory epithelial cells

Secretory epithelial cells are found in exocrine organs such as the pancreas and are also found in the lining of the lungs and gut. One important regulator of cell function in epithelial cells is the concentration of cytosolic Ca2+. The study of Ca2+ signaling in these cells has a long history and recent work has now identified, at the molecular level, key components in the Ca2+ signaling cascade. Furthermore, advances in fluorescent imaging techniques has enabled a detailed insight into the subcellular distribution of the agonist-evoked [Ca2+]i signal. A number of spatially different [Ca2+]i responses have been identified. Firstly, global [Ca2+]i signals are observed in response to high agonist concentrations. Secondly, at lower agonist concentrations trains of local [Ca2+]i spikes, restricted to the secretory pole region of pancreatic acinar cells, have been identified. Finally, these local [Ca2+]i spikes have now been further devolved into microdomains of [Ca2+]i elevation. The [Ca2+]i signal within a single microdomain has been shown to be the crucial trigger in the regulation of the ion channels important in fluid secretion.